Third-Millennium Challenges in Virtual-Learning Contexts: A Systematic Review in Developing Countries
Abstract
Education is the only industry in the pandemic era in most countries, even developing countries, has been wholly transferred to the online mode. Although virtual-learning is the best way to continue education during an epidemic, developing countries face challenges. This study aimed to determine the challenges of virtual education in developing countries. The PRISMA guideline was followed in this review, with seven databases searched: Scopus, ISI, ScienceDirect, Emerald, Pubmed, Ovid SP, and Google Scholar. The query "(virtual-learning OR E-Learning OR online learning) AND (challenges))" was used to retrieve records in the fields of title, keywords, and abstract without any date restrictions in order to achieve as many articles on this topic as possible. Then the references of each article were backward-tracked and searched in Google Scholar to identify extra potentially relevant articles. Three hundred and twenty-five records were retrieved from the literature search on January 9, 2021, with 56 retained after removing duplicates. After a detailed screening and selection process, 32 articles were selected. The results showed that the most critical virtual-learning challenges in developing countries were in six Items 1. Technical (Lack of proper telecommunications infrastructure, Lack of necessary electronic standards, hardware and software, reduced information security) 2. Cultural (attitude of second-rate education. 3. Virtual-learning skills (unfamiliarity with the virtual-learning environment, low hardware, and software literacy) 4. Socio-psychiatric factor (fear and anxiety in facing the virtual-learning environment, Distractions) 5. Quality of (education, difficulty in assessing the quality of learning, Lack of effective student-teacher interaction (6. Ethical (information plagiarism, Lack of intellectual property rights, and copyright law) were why most e-learners and e-tutors in developing countries were dissatisfied with virtual learning. According to the results, to overcome these challenges, it is necessary to create infrastructure and technology standards and use the experiences of developed countries concerning virtual-learning. In addition, it is necessary to create an appropriate culture and familiarize professors and learners with the development and use of a virtual-learning system while maintaining ethics.
1. Islam MS, Sarkar T, Khan SH, Mostofa Kamal AH, Hasan SMM, Kabir A, et al. COVID-19-related infodemic and its impact on public health: A global social media analysis. Am J Trop Med Hyg 2020;103:1621-9.
2. Aboagye E, Yawson JA, Appiah KN. COVID-19 and E-learning: The challenges of students in tertiary institutions. Soc Educ Res 2021;2:1-8.
3. Torres Martín C, Acal C, El Honrani M, Mingorance Estrada ÁC. Impact on the virtual learning environment due to COVID-19. Sustainability 2021;13:582.
4. Naresh B, Reddy BS. Challenges and opportunity of E-learning in developed and developing countries-a review. Int J Emerg Res Manag Technol 2015;4:259-62.
5. Kibuku RN, Ochieng DO, Wausi AN. e‑Learning Challenges Faced by Universities in Kenya: A Literature Review. Electron J Elearn 2020;18:150‑61.
6. Aung TN, Khaing SS, editors. Challenges of implementing e-learning in developing countries: A review. International Conference on Genetic and Evolutionary Computing. Switzerland: Springer, 2015.
7. Ali A, Ahmad I. Key factors for determining student satisfaction in distance learning courses: A study of Allama Iqbal Open University. Contemp Educ Technol 2011;2:118-34.
8. Alkharang MM. Factors that influence the adoption of e-learning: an empirical study in Kuwait [dissertation]. England: Brunel University London.; 2014.
9. Kim B, Park MJ. Effect of personal factors to use ICTs on e-learning adoption: comparison between learner and instructor in developing countries. Inf Technol Dev 2018;24:706-32.
10. Prensky M. Digital natives, digital immigrants part 2: Do they really think differently? On the horizon 2001;9:1-6.
11. Kanwal F, Rehman M. Factors affecting e-learning adoption in developing countries–empirical evidence from Pakistan’s higher education sector. IEEE Access 2017;5:10968-78.
12. Gaskell A, Mills R. The quality and reputation of open, distance and e-learning: what are the challenges? Open Learn 2014;29:190-205.
13. Mahyoob M. Challenges of e-Learning during the COVID-19 Pandemic Experienced by EFL Learners. Arab World Eng J 2020;11:351-62.
14. Alhumaid K, Ali S, Waheed A, Zahid E, Habes M. COVID-19 & Elearning: Perceptions & Attitudes of Teachers Towards E-Learning Acceptancein The Developing Countries. Multicult Educ 2020;6:100-15.
15. Eltahir ME. E-learning in developing countries: Is it a panacea? A case study of Sudan. IEEE Access 2019;7:97784-92.
16. Wanga H, Ngumbuke F, Oroma J. Challenges of e-learning in developing countries: The Ugandan experience. Retrieved 2012;12:2015.
17. Zarei S, Mohammadi S. Challenges of higher education related to e-learning in developing countries during COVID-19 spread: a review of the perspectives of students, instructors, policymakers, and ICT experts. Environ Sci Pollut Res Int 2021;1-7.
18. Nyerere J. Delivery of Open and Distance Learning in Kenya: Demand and Quality Concerns. Oasis, 2016. )Accessed at http://hdl.handle.net/11599/2683.)
19. Oye ND, Salleh M, Iahad N. Challenges of e-learning in Nigerian university education based on the experience of developed countries. Int J Manag Inf Technol 2011;3:39-48.
20. Qureshi IA, Ilyas K, Yasmin R, Whitty M. Challenges of implementing e-learning in a Pakistani university. Knowl Manag ELearn 2012;4:310-24.
21. Schurgers J, Van Stam G, Banda S, Labib M. Opportunities and challenges of E-learning in Zambia: Experiences and Reflections. Med J Zambia 2009;36:119-24.
22. Zalat MM, Hamed MS, Bolbol SA. The experiences, challenges, and acceptance of e-learning as a tool for teaching during the COVID-19 pandemic among university medical staff. PloS One 2021;16:e0248758.
23. Shahmoradi L, Changizi V, Mehraeen E, Bashiri A, Jannat B, Hosseini M. The challenges of E-learning system: Higher educational institutions perspective. J Educ Health Promot 2018;7:116.
24. Rjaibi N, Rabai LBA, Aissa AB, Louadi M. Cyber security measurement in depth for e-learning systems. Int J Adv Res Comput Sci Softw Eng 2012;2:107-20.
25. Muthuprasad T, Aiswarya S, Aditya K, Jha GK. Students’ perception and preference for online education in India during COVID-19 pandemic. Soc Sci Humanit Open 2021;3:100101
26. Rajab MH, Gazal AM, Alkattan K. Challenges to online medical education during the COVID-19 pandemic. Cureus 2020;12:e8966.
27. Nawaz A, Kundi GM. Demographic implications for the user‐perceptions of E‐learning in higher education institutions of N‐WFP, Pakistan. Electron J Inf Syst Dev Ctries 2010;41:1-17.
28. Letseka M, Letseka MM, Pitsoe V. The challenges of e-Learning in South Africa. Trends Elearn 2018:5:121-38.
29. Yaghoubi J, Malek Mohammadi I, Iravani H, Attaran M, Gheidi A. Virtual Students' Perceptions of e-Learning in Iran. Turk Online J Educ Technol 2008;7.
30. Olutola AT, Olatoye OO. Challenges of e-learning technologies in Nigerian university education. J Educ Soc Res 2015;5:301.
31. Rhema A, Miliszewska I. Towards e-learning in higher education in Libya. Issues Inf Sci Inf Technol 2010;7:423-37.
32. Andersson A, Grönlund Å. A conceptual framework for e‐learning in developing countries: A critical review of research challenges. Electron J Inf Syst Dev Ctries 2009;38:1-16.
33. Gunga SO, Ricketts IW. Facing the challenges of e‐learning initiatives in African universities. Br J Educ Technol 2007;38:896-906.
34. Andersson A. Seven major challenges for e-learning in developing countries: Case study eBIT, Sri Lanka. Int J Educ Dev Using Inf Commun Technol 2008;4:45-62.
35. Singh A, Mahajan S, Kaur H, Lal M, Singh G, Kaur P. Assessment of Barriers and Motivators in E-teaching among Medical Faculty of Punjab during COVID-19 Lockdown. Asian J Pharm Res Health Care 2021;13:49-60.
36. Shraim K, Khlaif Z. An e-learning approach to secondary education in Palestine: opportunities and challenges. Inf Technol Dev 2010;16:159-73.
37. Muuro ME, Wagacha WP, Kihoro J, Oboko R. Students’ perceived challenges in an online collaborative learning environment: A case of higher learning institutions in Nairobi, Kenya. Int Rev Res Open Distrib Learn 2014;15:132-61.
38. Salloum SA, Al-Emran M, Shaalan K, Tarhini A. Factors affecting the E-learning acceptance: A case study from UAE. Educ Inf Technol 2019;24:509-30.
39. Grönlund Å, Islam YM. A mobile e-learning environment for developing countries: The Bangladesh virtual interactive classroom. Inf Technol Dev 2010;16:244-59.
40. Alsoud AR, Harasis AA. The Impact of COVID-19 Pandemic on Student’s E-Learning Experience in Jordan. J Theor Appl Electron Commer Res 2021;16:1404-14.
41. Owolabi TO, Oyewole BK, Oke JO. Teacher education, information and communication technology: Prospects and challenges of e-teaching profession in Nigeria. Am J Soc Sci Humanit 2013;1:87-91.
42. Gitonga R, Muuro M, Nzuki D, editors. Students experiences of using Wiki spaces to support collaborative learning in a blended classroom: A case of Kenyatta and KCA universities in Kenya. 2014 IST-Africa Conference Proceedings. United States: Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers: IEEE, 2014.
43. Mosa AA, Mahrin MN, Ibrrahim R. Technological Aspects of E-Learning Readiness in Higher Education: A Review of the Literature. Comput Inf Sci 2016;9:113-27.
44. Frehywot S, Vovides Y, Talib Z, Mikhail N, Ross H, Wohltjen H, et al. E-learning in medical education in resource constrained low-and middle-income countries. Hum Resour Health 2013;11:1-15.
45. Pellegrini M, Uskov V, Casalino N. Reimagining and re-designing the post-Covid-19 higher education organizations to address new challenges and responses for safe and effective teaching activities. Law Econ Yearly Rev J 2020;9:219-48.
46. Reddy GS. Security issues and threats in educational clouds of e-learning: a review on security measures. Int J Comput Technol Appl 2013;4:312.
47. Njoroge R, Kibaru F, editors. Implementing Quality E-learning: Which Way for Higher Education Institutions in Kenya? EdMedia+ Innovate Learning; 2012 Jun 26. Waynesville: Association for the Advancement of Computing in Education (AACE), 2012: 1707-12.
48. Aydın CH, Tasci D. Measuring readiness for e-learning: Reflections from an emerging country. J Educ Techno Soc 2005;8:244-57.
49. Borotis S, Poulymenakou A, editors. E-learning readiness components: Key issues to consider before adopting e-learning interventions. E-Learn: World Conference on E-Learning in Corporate, Government, Healthcare, and Higher Education; 2004.Waynesville: Association for the Advancement of Computing in Education (AACE), 2004:1622-9.
50. Barteit S, Guzek D, Jahn A, Bärnighausen T, Jorge MM, Neuhann F. Evaluation of e-learning for medical education in low-and middle-income countries: A systematic review. Comput Educ 2020;145:103726.
51. Byun S, Slavin RE. Educational responses to the COVID-19 outbreak in South Korea. Best Evid Chin Edu 2020;5:665-80.
52. Alghali M, Najwa H, Roesnita I, editors. Challenges and benefits of implementing cloud based e-Learning in developing countries. Proceeding of the Social Sciences Research ICSSR. Kota Kinabalu, Sabah, Malaysia: WorldConferences, 2014:9-10.
53. Fishbane L, Tomer A. As classes move online during COVID-19, what are disconnected students to do. Brookings Institute; 2020.
54. Joosub S. Vodacom helps to flatten the COVID-19 curve through technological innovation; 2020.
55. Technology MoIaC. Government of the Islamic Republic of Iran. Iranian Teachers Get 20 GB of Free Internet amid Corona Outbreak 2021. [Accessed at https://irangov.ir/detail/336507.]
2. Aboagye E, Yawson JA, Appiah KN. COVID-19 and E-learning: The challenges of students in tertiary institutions. Soc Educ Res 2021;2:1-8.
3. Torres Martín C, Acal C, El Honrani M, Mingorance Estrada ÁC. Impact on the virtual learning environment due to COVID-19. Sustainability 2021;13:582.
4. Naresh B, Reddy BS. Challenges and opportunity of E-learning in developed and developing countries-a review. Int J Emerg Res Manag Technol 2015;4:259-62.
5. Kibuku RN, Ochieng DO, Wausi AN. e‑Learning Challenges Faced by Universities in Kenya: A Literature Review. Electron J Elearn 2020;18:150‑61.
6. Aung TN, Khaing SS, editors. Challenges of implementing e-learning in developing countries: A review. International Conference on Genetic and Evolutionary Computing. Switzerland: Springer, 2015.
7. Ali A, Ahmad I. Key factors for determining student satisfaction in distance learning courses: A study of Allama Iqbal Open University. Contemp Educ Technol 2011;2:118-34.
8. Alkharang MM. Factors that influence the adoption of e-learning: an empirical study in Kuwait [dissertation]. England: Brunel University London.; 2014.
9. Kim B, Park MJ. Effect of personal factors to use ICTs on e-learning adoption: comparison between learner and instructor in developing countries. Inf Technol Dev 2018;24:706-32.
10. Prensky M. Digital natives, digital immigrants part 2: Do they really think differently? On the horizon 2001;9:1-6.
11. Kanwal F, Rehman M. Factors affecting e-learning adoption in developing countries–empirical evidence from Pakistan’s higher education sector. IEEE Access 2017;5:10968-78.
12. Gaskell A, Mills R. The quality and reputation of open, distance and e-learning: what are the challenges? Open Learn 2014;29:190-205.
13. Mahyoob M. Challenges of e-Learning during the COVID-19 Pandemic Experienced by EFL Learners. Arab World Eng J 2020;11:351-62.
14. Alhumaid K, Ali S, Waheed A, Zahid E, Habes M. COVID-19 & Elearning: Perceptions & Attitudes of Teachers Towards E-Learning Acceptancein The Developing Countries. Multicult Educ 2020;6:100-15.
15. Eltahir ME. E-learning in developing countries: Is it a panacea? A case study of Sudan. IEEE Access 2019;7:97784-92.
16. Wanga H, Ngumbuke F, Oroma J. Challenges of e-learning in developing countries: The Ugandan experience. Retrieved 2012;12:2015.
17. Zarei S, Mohammadi S. Challenges of higher education related to e-learning in developing countries during COVID-19 spread: a review of the perspectives of students, instructors, policymakers, and ICT experts. Environ Sci Pollut Res Int 2021;1-7.
18. Nyerere J. Delivery of Open and Distance Learning in Kenya: Demand and Quality Concerns. Oasis, 2016. )Accessed at http://hdl.handle.net/11599/2683.)
19. Oye ND, Salleh M, Iahad N. Challenges of e-learning in Nigerian university education based on the experience of developed countries. Int J Manag Inf Technol 2011;3:39-48.
20. Qureshi IA, Ilyas K, Yasmin R, Whitty M. Challenges of implementing e-learning in a Pakistani university. Knowl Manag ELearn 2012;4:310-24.
21. Schurgers J, Van Stam G, Banda S, Labib M. Opportunities and challenges of E-learning in Zambia: Experiences and Reflections. Med J Zambia 2009;36:119-24.
22. Zalat MM, Hamed MS, Bolbol SA. The experiences, challenges, and acceptance of e-learning as a tool for teaching during the COVID-19 pandemic among university medical staff. PloS One 2021;16:e0248758.
23. Shahmoradi L, Changizi V, Mehraeen E, Bashiri A, Jannat B, Hosseini M. The challenges of E-learning system: Higher educational institutions perspective. J Educ Health Promot 2018;7:116.
24. Rjaibi N, Rabai LBA, Aissa AB, Louadi M. Cyber security measurement in depth for e-learning systems. Int J Adv Res Comput Sci Softw Eng 2012;2:107-20.
25. Muthuprasad T, Aiswarya S, Aditya K, Jha GK. Students’ perception and preference for online education in India during COVID-19 pandemic. Soc Sci Humanit Open 2021;3:100101
26. Rajab MH, Gazal AM, Alkattan K. Challenges to online medical education during the COVID-19 pandemic. Cureus 2020;12:e8966.
27. Nawaz A, Kundi GM. Demographic implications for the user‐perceptions of E‐learning in higher education institutions of N‐WFP, Pakistan. Electron J Inf Syst Dev Ctries 2010;41:1-17.
28. Letseka M, Letseka MM, Pitsoe V. The challenges of e-Learning in South Africa. Trends Elearn 2018:5:121-38.
29. Yaghoubi J, Malek Mohammadi I, Iravani H, Attaran M, Gheidi A. Virtual Students' Perceptions of e-Learning in Iran. Turk Online J Educ Technol 2008;7.
30. Olutola AT, Olatoye OO. Challenges of e-learning technologies in Nigerian university education. J Educ Soc Res 2015;5:301.
31. Rhema A, Miliszewska I. Towards e-learning in higher education in Libya. Issues Inf Sci Inf Technol 2010;7:423-37.
32. Andersson A, Grönlund Å. A conceptual framework for e‐learning in developing countries: A critical review of research challenges. Electron J Inf Syst Dev Ctries 2009;38:1-16.
33. Gunga SO, Ricketts IW. Facing the challenges of e‐learning initiatives in African universities. Br J Educ Technol 2007;38:896-906.
34. Andersson A. Seven major challenges for e-learning in developing countries: Case study eBIT, Sri Lanka. Int J Educ Dev Using Inf Commun Technol 2008;4:45-62.
35. Singh A, Mahajan S, Kaur H, Lal M, Singh G, Kaur P. Assessment of Barriers and Motivators in E-teaching among Medical Faculty of Punjab during COVID-19 Lockdown. Asian J Pharm Res Health Care 2021;13:49-60.
36. Shraim K, Khlaif Z. An e-learning approach to secondary education in Palestine: opportunities and challenges. Inf Technol Dev 2010;16:159-73.
37. Muuro ME, Wagacha WP, Kihoro J, Oboko R. Students’ perceived challenges in an online collaborative learning environment: A case of higher learning institutions in Nairobi, Kenya. Int Rev Res Open Distrib Learn 2014;15:132-61.
38. Salloum SA, Al-Emran M, Shaalan K, Tarhini A. Factors affecting the E-learning acceptance: A case study from UAE. Educ Inf Technol 2019;24:509-30.
39. Grönlund Å, Islam YM. A mobile e-learning environment for developing countries: The Bangladesh virtual interactive classroom. Inf Technol Dev 2010;16:244-59.
40. Alsoud AR, Harasis AA. The Impact of COVID-19 Pandemic on Student’s E-Learning Experience in Jordan. J Theor Appl Electron Commer Res 2021;16:1404-14.
41. Owolabi TO, Oyewole BK, Oke JO. Teacher education, information and communication technology: Prospects and challenges of e-teaching profession in Nigeria. Am J Soc Sci Humanit 2013;1:87-91.
42. Gitonga R, Muuro M, Nzuki D, editors. Students experiences of using Wiki spaces to support collaborative learning in a blended classroom: A case of Kenyatta and KCA universities in Kenya. 2014 IST-Africa Conference Proceedings. United States: Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers: IEEE, 2014.
43. Mosa AA, Mahrin MN, Ibrrahim R. Technological Aspects of E-Learning Readiness in Higher Education: A Review of the Literature. Comput Inf Sci 2016;9:113-27.
44. Frehywot S, Vovides Y, Talib Z, Mikhail N, Ross H, Wohltjen H, et al. E-learning in medical education in resource constrained low-and middle-income countries. Hum Resour Health 2013;11:1-15.
45. Pellegrini M, Uskov V, Casalino N. Reimagining and re-designing the post-Covid-19 higher education organizations to address new challenges and responses for safe and effective teaching activities. Law Econ Yearly Rev J 2020;9:219-48.
46. Reddy GS. Security issues and threats in educational clouds of e-learning: a review on security measures. Int J Comput Technol Appl 2013;4:312.
47. Njoroge R, Kibaru F, editors. Implementing Quality E-learning: Which Way for Higher Education Institutions in Kenya? EdMedia+ Innovate Learning; 2012 Jun 26. Waynesville: Association for the Advancement of Computing in Education (AACE), 2012: 1707-12.
48. Aydın CH, Tasci D. Measuring readiness for e-learning: Reflections from an emerging country. J Educ Techno Soc 2005;8:244-57.
49. Borotis S, Poulymenakou A, editors. E-learning readiness components: Key issues to consider before adopting e-learning interventions. E-Learn: World Conference on E-Learning in Corporate, Government, Healthcare, and Higher Education; 2004.Waynesville: Association for the Advancement of Computing in Education (AACE), 2004:1622-9.
50. Barteit S, Guzek D, Jahn A, Bärnighausen T, Jorge MM, Neuhann F. Evaluation of e-learning for medical education in low-and middle-income countries: A systematic review. Comput Educ 2020;145:103726.
51. Byun S, Slavin RE. Educational responses to the COVID-19 outbreak in South Korea. Best Evid Chin Edu 2020;5:665-80.
52. Alghali M, Najwa H, Roesnita I, editors. Challenges and benefits of implementing cloud based e-Learning in developing countries. Proceeding of the Social Sciences Research ICSSR. Kota Kinabalu, Sabah, Malaysia: WorldConferences, 2014:9-10.
53. Fishbane L, Tomer A. As classes move online during COVID-19, what are disconnected students to do. Brookings Institute; 2020.
54. Joosub S. Vodacom helps to flatten the COVID-19 curve through technological innovation; 2020.
55. Technology MoIaC. Government of the Islamic Republic of Iran. Iranian Teachers Get 20 GB of Free Internet amid Corona Outbreak 2021. [Accessed at https://irangov.ir/detail/336507.]
| Files | ||
| Issue | Vol 60 No 8 (2022) | |
| Section | Review Article(s) | |
| DOI | https://doi.org/10.18502/acta.v60i8.10828 | |
| Keywords | ||
| Virtual-learning Challenges Developing countries | ||
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How to Cite
1.
latifi M, Rahimi F, Davari Dolatabadi N, Allahbakhshian L. Third-Millennium Challenges in Virtual-Learning Contexts: A Systematic Review in Developing Countries. Acta Med Iran. 2022;60(8):447-456.
