Selenium and Graves’ Disease
,
Abstract
Selenium, a trace element present in specific selenoproteins, is essential for thyroid hormone metabolism. Selenium is also an antioxidant with immunosuppressive properties and may help in managing thyroid autoimmune diseases, including Graves’ (GD) hyperthyroidism and Graves’ ophthalmopathy (GO). There were 320 clinical studies related to selenium and thyroid published in English and French between January 1, 2000, and June 1, 2023. Our focus was to identify studies reporting levels of serum selenium in patients with GD and studies that assessed the effect of selenium supplementation on outcomes of GD hyperthyroidism and GO. We also reviewed 20 systematic reviews and meta-analyses of randomized controlled trials that reported selenium levels in GD and the effects of supplementation on GD and GO outcomes. Our review showed that patients with GD had serum selenium levels lower than those of various control patients. In the short-term, a selenium supplement to antithyroid drugs showed benefit for GD hyperthyroidism in most studies, but long-term benefits and positive effects on remission rate were unclear. Some studies did not show benefit. The benefits may depend on baseline selenium deficiency. Two randomized controlled trials showed positive effects of supplementation for mild GO; however, studies about moderate and severe GO are still needed. There is evidence for benefit with short-term selenium supplementation for GD hyperthyroidism, but controlled studies are needed to assess long-term benefits, and benefits in selenium-sufficient areas.
1. Rayman MP. Selenium and human health. Lancet 2012;379:1256-68.
2. Winther KH, Rayman MP, Bonnema SJ, Hegedus L. Selenium in thyroid disorders - essential knowledge for clinicians. Nat Rev Endocrinol 2020;16:165-76.
3. Zhou Q, Xue S, Zhang L, Chen G. Trace elements and the thyroid. Front Endocrinol (Lausanne) 2022;13:904889.
4. Kim TH, Ko J, Kim BR, Shin DY, Lee EJ, Yoon JS. Serum Selenium Levels in Patients with Graves Disease: Associations with Clinical Activity and Severity in a Retrospective Case-control Study. Korean J Ophthalmol 2022;36:36-43.
5. Wimmer I, Hartmann T, Brustbauer R, Minear G, Dam K. Selenium levels in patients with autoimmune thyroiditis and controls in lower Austria. Horm Metab Res 2014;46:707-9.
6. de Farias CR, Cardoso BR, de Oliveira GM, de Mello Guazzelli IC, Catarino RM, Chammas MC, et al. A randomized-controlled, double-blind study of the impact of selenium supplementation on thyroid autoimmunity and inflammation with focus on the GPx1 genotypes. J Endocrinol Invest 2015;38:1065-74.
7. Zhang XH, Yuan GP, Chen TL. Clinical effect of methimazole combined with selenium in the treatment of toxic diffuse goiter in children. World J Clin Cases 2022;10:1190-7.
8. Marcocci C, Kahaly GJ, Krassas GE, Bartalena L, Prummel M, Stahl M, et al. Selenium and the course of mild Graves' orbitopathy. N Engl J Med 2011;364:1920-31.
9. Almanza-Monterrubio M, Garnica-Hayashi L, Davila-Camargo A, Nava-Castaneda A. Oral selenium improved the disease activity in patients with mild Graves' orbitopathy. J Fr Ophtalmol 2021;44:643-51.
10. Zheng H, Wei J, Wang L, Wang Q, Zhao J, Chen S, et al. Effects of Selenium Supplementation on Graves' Disease: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Evid Based Complement Alternat Med 2018;2018:3763565.
11. Gallo D, Mortara L, Veronesi G, Cattaneo SA, Genoni A, Gallazzi M, et al. Add-On Effect of Selenium and Vitamin D Combined Supplementation in Early Control of Graves' Disease Hyperthyroidism During Methimazole Treatment. Front Endocrinol (Lausanne) 2022;13:886451.
12. Kahaly GJ, Riedl M, Konig J, Diana T, Schomburg L. Double-Blind, Placebo-Controlled, Randomized Trial of Selenium in Graves Hyperthyroidism. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2017;102:4333-41.
13. Veisa V, Kalere I, Zake T, Strele I, Makrecka-Kuka M, Upmale-Engela S, et al. Assessment of Iodine and Selenium Nutritional Status in Women of Reproductive Age in Latvia. Medicina (Kaunas) 2021;57:1211.
14. Schomburg L. Selenium Deficiency Due to Diet, Pregnancy, Severe Illness, or COVID-19-A Preventable Trigger for Autoimmune Disease. Int J Mol Sci. 2021;22:8532.
15. Alfthan G, Eurola M, Ekholm P, Venalainen ER, Root T, Korkalainen K, et al. Effects of nationwide addition of selenium to fertilizers on foods, and animal and human health in Finland: From deficiency to optimal selenium status of the population. J Trace Elem Med Biol 2015;31:142-7.
16. Gorini F, Sabatino L, Pingitore A, Vassalle C. Selenium: An Element of Life Essential for Thyroid Function. Molecules 2021;26:7084.
17. Wu Q, Rayman MP, Lv H, Schomburg L, Cui B, Gao C, et al. Low Population Selenium Status Is Associated With Increased Prevalence of Thyroid Disease. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2015;100:4037-47.
18. Krassas GE, Pontikides N, Tziomalos K, Tzotzas T, Zosin I, Vlad M, et al. Selenium status in patients with autoimmune and non-autoimmune thyroid diseases from four European countries. Expert Rev Endocrinol Metab 2014;9:685-92.
19. Wiersinga WM. Clinical Relevance of Environmental Factors in the Pathogenesis of Autoimmune Thyroid Disease. Endocrinol Metab (Seoul) 2016;31:213-22.
20. Yuan Z, Xu X, Ye H, Jin L, Zhang X, Zhu Y. High levels of plasma selenium are associated with metabolic syndrome and elevated fasting plasma glucose in a Chinese population: A case-control study. J Trace Elem Med Biol 2015;32:189-94.
21. Rayman MP, Winther KH, Pastor-Barriuso R, Cold F, Thvilum M, Stranges S, et al. Effect of long-term selenium supplementation on mortality: Results from a multiple-dose, randomised controlled trial. Free Radic Biol Med 2018;127:46-54.
22. Hadrup N, Ravn-Haren G. Acute human toxicity and mortality after selenium ingestion: A review. J Trace Elem Med Biol 2020;58:126435.
23. Brodin O, Hackler J, Misra S, Wendt S, Sun Q, Laaf E, et al. Selenoprotein P as Biomarker of Selenium Status in Clinical Trials with Therapeutic Dosages of Selenite. Nutrients 2020;12:1067.
24. Sun Q, Mehl S, Renko K, Seemann P, Gorlich CL, Hackler J, et al. Natural Autoimmunity to Selenoprotein P Impairs Selenium Transport in Hashimoto's Thyroiditis. Int J Mol Sci 2021;22:13088.
25. Santos LR, Neves C, Melo M, Soares P. Selenium and Selenoproteins in Immune Mediated Thyroid Disorders. Diagnostics (Basel) 2018;8:70.
26. Schomburg L. Selenium, selenoproteins and the thyroid gland: interactions in health and disease. Nat Rev Endocrinol 2011;8:160-71.
27. Valea A, Georgescu CE. Selenoproteins in human body: focus on thyroid pathophysiology. Hormones (Athens) 2018;17:183-96.
28. Duntas LH. The Role of Iodine and Selenium in Autoimmune Thyroiditis. Horm Metab Res 2015;47:721-6.
29. Pilli T, Cantara S, Schomburg L, Cenci V, Cardinale S, Heid EC, et al. IFNgamma-Inducible Chemokines Decrease upon Selenomethionine Supplementation in Women with Euthyroid Autoimmune Thyroiditis: Comparison between Two Doses of Selenomethionine (80 or 160 mug) versus Placebo. Eur Thyroid J 2015;4:226-33.
30. Wang Y, Zhao F, Rijntjes E, Wu L, Wu Q, Sui J, et al. Role of Selenium Intake for Risk and Development of Hyperthyroidism. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2019;104:568-80.
31. Kohrle J. Selenium in Endocrinology-Selenoprotein-Related Diseases, Population Studies, and Epidemiological Evidence. Endocrinology 2021;162:bqaa228.
32. Ruggeri RM, D'Ascola A, Vicchio TM, Campo S, Giani F, Giovinazzo S, et al. Selenium exerts protective effects against oxidative stress and cell damage in human thyrocytes and fibroblasts. Endocrine 2020;68:151-62.
33. Chung CW, Jung KY, Jung EH, Lee MJ, Park YJ, Lee JK, et al. Efficacy of selenium supplementation for mild-to-moderate Graves' ophthalmopathy in a selenium-sufficient area (SeGOSS trial): study protocol for a phase III, multicenter, open-label, randomized, controlled intervention trial. Trials 2023;24:272.
34. Chakrabarti SK, Ghosh S, Banerjee S, Mukherjee S, Chowdhury S. Oxidative stress in hypothyroid patients and the role of antioxidant supplementation. Indian J Endocrinol Metab 2016;20:674-8.
35. Gheorghiu ML, Badiu C. Selenium involvement in mitochondrial function in thyroid disorders. Hormones (Athens) 2020;19:25-30.
36. Fan Y, Xu S, Zhang H, Cao W, Wang K, Chen G, et al. Selenium supplementation for autoimmune thyroiditis: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Int J Endocrinol 2014;2014:904573.
37. Hu Y, Feng W, Chen H, Shi H, Jiang L, Zheng X, et al. Effect of selenium on thyroid autoimmunity and regulatory T cells in patients with Hashimoto's thyroiditis: A prospective randomized-controlled trial. Clin Transl Sci 2021;14:1390-402.
38. Dehina NE, Minich W, Behrends T, Morgenthaler NG, Kohrle J, Schomburg L. Circulating selenoprotein P concentrations are decreased in patients with Graves' disease and correlate inversely to severity of orbitopathy. Acta Med Port 2009;22:1.
39. Karassas G, Karras S, Boborides K, Spanos E. Selenium serum levels in patients with mild Graves' orbitopathy: Results of a controlled study. 12th European Congress of Endocrinology (Abstract) 2010;22:779.
40. Bülow Pedersen I, Knudsen N, Carlé A, Schomburg L, Köhrle J, Jørgensen T, et al. Serum selenium is low in newly diagnosed Graves' disease: a population-based study. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 2013;79:584-90.
41. Khong JJ, Goldstein RF, Sanders KM, Schneider H, Pope J, Burdon KP, et al. Serum selenium status in Graves' disease with and without orbitopathy: a case-control study. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 2014;80:905-10.
42. Dehina N, Hofmann PJ, Behrends T, Eckstein A, Schomburg L. Lack of Association between Selenium Status and Disease Severity and Activity in Patients with Graves' Ophthalmopathy. Eur Thyroid J 2016;5:57-64.
43. Heidari Z, Sheikhi V. Serum selenium status in Graves' disease and Hashimoto's thyroiditis in an iodine-sufficient area: A case-control study. J Res Med Sci 2022;27:87.
44. Owji N, Moradi F, Khalili MR, Jahanbani-Ardakani H. Serum Selenium Levels in Patients With Graves Disease With or Without Thyroid Ophthalmopathy. Endocr Pract 2022;28:1216-20.
45. Duntas LH, Boutsiadis A, Tsakris A. Impaired Metabolism of Selenomethionine in Graves' Disease: A Biokinetics Study of Soft Gel Capsule Formulation. Horm Metab Res 2017;49:589-94.
46. Dharmasena A. Selenium supplementation in thyroid associated ophthalmopathy: an update. Int J Ophthalmol 2014;7:365-75.
47. Wertenbruch T, Willenberg HS, Sagert C, Nguyen TB, Bahlo M, Feldkamp J, et al. Serum selenium levels in patients with remission and relapse of graves' disease. Med Chem 2007;3:281-4.
48. Calissendorff J, Mikulski E, Larsen EH, Moller M. A Prospective Investigation of Graves' Disease and Selenium: Thyroid Hormones, Auto-Antibodies and Self-Rated Symptoms. Eur Thyroid J 2015;4:93-8.
49. Wang L, Wang B, Chen SR, Hou X, Wang XF, Zhao SH, et al. Effect of Selenium Supplementation on Recurrent Hyperthyroidism Caused by Graves' Disease: A Prospective Pilot Study. Horm Metab Res 2016;48:559-64.
50. Leo M, Bartalena L, Rotondo Dottore G, Piantanida E, Premoli P, Ionni I, et al. Effects of selenium on short-term control of hyperthyroidism due to Graves' disease treated with methimazole: results of a randomized clinical trial. J Endocrinol Invest 2017;40:281-7.
51. Xu B, Wu D, Ying H, Zhang Y. A pilot study on the beneficial effects of additional selenium supplementation to methimazole for treating patients with Graves' disease. Turk J Med Sci 2019;49:715-22.
52. Winther KH, Bonnema SJ, Hegedus L. Is selenium supplementation in autoimmune thyroid diseases justified? Curr Opin Endocrinol Diabetes Obes 2017;24:348-55.
53. Wang M, Yu Y. Therapeutic Effects of Combination Regimens Including Methimazole on Graves Hyperthyroidism: A Network Meta-Analysis of Randomized Controlled Trials. Endocr Pract 2020;26:675-87.
54. Bednarczuk T, Schomburg L. Challenges and perspectives of selenium supplementation in Graves' disease and orbitopathy. Hormones (Athens) 2020;19:31-9.
55. Kim BY, Jang SY, Choi DH, Jung CH, Mok JO, Kim CH. Anti-inflammatory and Antioxidant Effects of Selenium on Orbital Fibroblasts of Patients With Graves Ophthalmopathy. Ophthalmic Plast Reconstr Surg 2021;37:476-81.
56. Rotondo Dottore G, Chiarini R, De Gregorio M, Leo M, Casini G, Cestari L, et al. Selenium rescues orbital fibroblasts from cell death induced by hydrogen peroxide: another molecular basis for the effects of selenium in graves' orbitopathy. Endocrine 2017;58:386-9.
57. Federige MAF, Romaldini JH, Miklos A, Koike MK, Takei K, Portes ES. Serum selenium and selenoprotein-P levels in autoimmune thyroid diseases patients in a select center: a transversal study. Arch Endocrinol Metab 2017;61:600-7.
58. He M, Wang Y, Wang J, Sui J, Ding X, Chen Z, et al. The potential markers involved in newly diagnosed graves' disease and the development of active graves' orbitopathy. Cytokine 2020;127:154998.
59. Lanzolla G, Marino M, Marcocci C. Selenium in the Treatment of Graves' Hyperthyroidism and Eye Disease. Front Endocrinol (Lausanne) 2020;11:608428.
60. Lumyongsatien M, Bhaktikamala U, Thongtong P, Sintuwong S, Nimitwongsakul O, Kanokkantapong J, et al. Relative selenium insufficiency is a risk factor for developing severe Graves' orbitopathy: a case-control study. BMJ Open Ophthalmol 2021;6:e000713.
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2. Winther KH, Rayman MP, Bonnema SJ, Hegedus L. Selenium in thyroid disorders - essential knowledge for clinicians. Nat Rev Endocrinol 2020;16:165-76.
3. Zhou Q, Xue S, Zhang L, Chen G. Trace elements and the thyroid. Front Endocrinol (Lausanne) 2022;13:904889.
4. Kim TH, Ko J, Kim BR, Shin DY, Lee EJ, Yoon JS. Serum Selenium Levels in Patients with Graves Disease: Associations with Clinical Activity and Severity in a Retrospective Case-control Study. Korean J Ophthalmol 2022;36:36-43.
5. Wimmer I, Hartmann T, Brustbauer R, Minear G, Dam K. Selenium levels in patients with autoimmune thyroiditis and controls in lower Austria. Horm Metab Res 2014;46:707-9.
6. de Farias CR, Cardoso BR, de Oliveira GM, de Mello Guazzelli IC, Catarino RM, Chammas MC, et al. A randomized-controlled, double-blind study of the impact of selenium supplementation on thyroid autoimmunity and inflammation with focus on the GPx1 genotypes. J Endocrinol Invest 2015;38:1065-74.
7. Zhang XH, Yuan GP, Chen TL. Clinical effect of methimazole combined with selenium in the treatment of toxic diffuse goiter in children. World J Clin Cases 2022;10:1190-7.
8. Marcocci C, Kahaly GJ, Krassas GE, Bartalena L, Prummel M, Stahl M, et al. Selenium and the course of mild Graves' orbitopathy. N Engl J Med 2011;364:1920-31.
9. Almanza-Monterrubio M, Garnica-Hayashi L, Davila-Camargo A, Nava-Castaneda A. Oral selenium improved the disease activity in patients with mild Graves' orbitopathy. J Fr Ophtalmol 2021;44:643-51.
10. Zheng H, Wei J, Wang L, Wang Q, Zhao J, Chen S, et al. Effects of Selenium Supplementation on Graves' Disease: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Evid Based Complement Alternat Med 2018;2018:3763565.
11. Gallo D, Mortara L, Veronesi G, Cattaneo SA, Genoni A, Gallazzi M, et al. Add-On Effect of Selenium and Vitamin D Combined Supplementation in Early Control of Graves' Disease Hyperthyroidism During Methimazole Treatment. Front Endocrinol (Lausanne) 2022;13:886451.
12. Kahaly GJ, Riedl M, Konig J, Diana T, Schomburg L. Double-Blind, Placebo-Controlled, Randomized Trial of Selenium in Graves Hyperthyroidism. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2017;102:4333-41.
13. Veisa V, Kalere I, Zake T, Strele I, Makrecka-Kuka M, Upmale-Engela S, et al. Assessment of Iodine and Selenium Nutritional Status in Women of Reproductive Age in Latvia. Medicina (Kaunas) 2021;57:1211.
14. Schomburg L. Selenium Deficiency Due to Diet, Pregnancy, Severe Illness, or COVID-19-A Preventable Trigger for Autoimmune Disease. Int J Mol Sci. 2021;22:8532.
15. Alfthan G, Eurola M, Ekholm P, Venalainen ER, Root T, Korkalainen K, et al. Effects of nationwide addition of selenium to fertilizers on foods, and animal and human health in Finland: From deficiency to optimal selenium status of the population. J Trace Elem Med Biol 2015;31:142-7.
16. Gorini F, Sabatino L, Pingitore A, Vassalle C. Selenium: An Element of Life Essential for Thyroid Function. Molecules 2021;26:7084.
17. Wu Q, Rayman MP, Lv H, Schomburg L, Cui B, Gao C, et al. Low Population Selenium Status Is Associated With Increased Prevalence of Thyroid Disease. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2015;100:4037-47.
18. Krassas GE, Pontikides N, Tziomalos K, Tzotzas T, Zosin I, Vlad M, et al. Selenium status in patients with autoimmune and non-autoimmune thyroid diseases from four European countries. Expert Rev Endocrinol Metab 2014;9:685-92.
19. Wiersinga WM. Clinical Relevance of Environmental Factors in the Pathogenesis of Autoimmune Thyroid Disease. Endocrinol Metab (Seoul) 2016;31:213-22.
20. Yuan Z, Xu X, Ye H, Jin L, Zhang X, Zhu Y. High levels of plasma selenium are associated with metabolic syndrome and elevated fasting plasma glucose in a Chinese population: A case-control study. J Trace Elem Med Biol 2015;32:189-94.
21. Rayman MP, Winther KH, Pastor-Barriuso R, Cold F, Thvilum M, Stranges S, et al. Effect of long-term selenium supplementation on mortality: Results from a multiple-dose, randomised controlled trial. Free Radic Biol Med 2018;127:46-54.
22. Hadrup N, Ravn-Haren G. Acute human toxicity and mortality after selenium ingestion: A review. J Trace Elem Med Biol 2020;58:126435.
23. Brodin O, Hackler J, Misra S, Wendt S, Sun Q, Laaf E, et al. Selenoprotein P as Biomarker of Selenium Status in Clinical Trials with Therapeutic Dosages of Selenite. Nutrients 2020;12:1067.
24. Sun Q, Mehl S, Renko K, Seemann P, Gorlich CL, Hackler J, et al. Natural Autoimmunity to Selenoprotein P Impairs Selenium Transport in Hashimoto's Thyroiditis. Int J Mol Sci 2021;22:13088.
25. Santos LR, Neves C, Melo M, Soares P. Selenium and Selenoproteins in Immune Mediated Thyroid Disorders. Diagnostics (Basel) 2018;8:70.
26. Schomburg L. Selenium, selenoproteins and the thyroid gland: interactions in health and disease. Nat Rev Endocrinol 2011;8:160-71.
27. Valea A, Georgescu CE. Selenoproteins in human body: focus on thyroid pathophysiology. Hormones (Athens) 2018;17:183-96.
28. Duntas LH. The Role of Iodine and Selenium in Autoimmune Thyroiditis. Horm Metab Res 2015;47:721-6.
29. Pilli T, Cantara S, Schomburg L, Cenci V, Cardinale S, Heid EC, et al. IFNgamma-Inducible Chemokines Decrease upon Selenomethionine Supplementation in Women with Euthyroid Autoimmune Thyroiditis: Comparison between Two Doses of Selenomethionine (80 or 160 mug) versus Placebo. Eur Thyroid J 2015;4:226-33.
30. Wang Y, Zhao F, Rijntjes E, Wu L, Wu Q, Sui J, et al. Role of Selenium Intake for Risk and Development of Hyperthyroidism. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2019;104:568-80.
31. Kohrle J. Selenium in Endocrinology-Selenoprotein-Related Diseases, Population Studies, and Epidemiological Evidence. Endocrinology 2021;162:bqaa228.
32. Ruggeri RM, D'Ascola A, Vicchio TM, Campo S, Giani F, Giovinazzo S, et al. Selenium exerts protective effects against oxidative stress and cell damage in human thyrocytes and fibroblasts. Endocrine 2020;68:151-62.
33. Chung CW, Jung KY, Jung EH, Lee MJ, Park YJ, Lee JK, et al. Efficacy of selenium supplementation for mild-to-moderate Graves' ophthalmopathy in a selenium-sufficient area (SeGOSS trial): study protocol for a phase III, multicenter, open-label, randomized, controlled intervention trial. Trials 2023;24:272.
34. Chakrabarti SK, Ghosh S, Banerjee S, Mukherjee S, Chowdhury S. Oxidative stress in hypothyroid patients and the role of antioxidant supplementation. Indian J Endocrinol Metab 2016;20:674-8.
35. Gheorghiu ML, Badiu C. Selenium involvement in mitochondrial function in thyroid disorders. Hormones (Athens) 2020;19:25-30.
36. Fan Y, Xu S, Zhang H, Cao W, Wang K, Chen G, et al. Selenium supplementation for autoimmune thyroiditis: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Int J Endocrinol 2014;2014:904573.
37. Hu Y, Feng W, Chen H, Shi H, Jiang L, Zheng X, et al. Effect of selenium on thyroid autoimmunity and regulatory T cells in patients with Hashimoto's thyroiditis: A prospective randomized-controlled trial. Clin Transl Sci 2021;14:1390-402.
38. Dehina NE, Minich W, Behrends T, Morgenthaler NG, Kohrle J, Schomburg L. Circulating selenoprotein P concentrations are decreased in patients with Graves' disease and correlate inversely to severity of orbitopathy. Acta Med Port 2009;22:1.
39. Karassas G, Karras S, Boborides K, Spanos E. Selenium serum levels in patients with mild Graves' orbitopathy: Results of a controlled study. 12th European Congress of Endocrinology (Abstract) 2010;22:779.
40. Bülow Pedersen I, Knudsen N, Carlé A, Schomburg L, Köhrle J, Jørgensen T, et al. Serum selenium is low in newly diagnosed Graves' disease: a population-based study. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 2013;79:584-90.
41. Khong JJ, Goldstein RF, Sanders KM, Schneider H, Pope J, Burdon KP, et al. Serum selenium status in Graves' disease with and without orbitopathy: a case-control study. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 2014;80:905-10.
42. Dehina N, Hofmann PJ, Behrends T, Eckstein A, Schomburg L. Lack of Association between Selenium Status and Disease Severity and Activity in Patients with Graves' Ophthalmopathy. Eur Thyroid J 2016;5:57-64.
43. Heidari Z, Sheikhi V. Serum selenium status in Graves' disease and Hashimoto's thyroiditis in an iodine-sufficient area: A case-control study. J Res Med Sci 2022;27:87.
44. Owji N, Moradi F, Khalili MR, Jahanbani-Ardakani H. Serum Selenium Levels in Patients With Graves Disease With or Without Thyroid Ophthalmopathy. Endocr Pract 2022;28:1216-20.
45. Duntas LH, Boutsiadis A, Tsakris A. Impaired Metabolism of Selenomethionine in Graves' Disease: A Biokinetics Study of Soft Gel Capsule Formulation. Horm Metab Res 2017;49:589-94.
46. Dharmasena A. Selenium supplementation in thyroid associated ophthalmopathy: an update. Int J Ophthalmol 2014;7:365-75.
47. Wertenbruch T, Willenberg HS, Sagert C, Nguyen TB, Bahlo M, Feldkamp J, et al. Serum selenium levels in patients with remission and relapse of graves' disease. Med Chem 2007;3:281-4.
48. Calissendorff J, Mikulski E, Larsen EH, Moller M. A Prospective Investigation of Graves' Disease and Selenium: Thyroid Hormones, Auto-Antibodies and Self-Rated Symptoms. Eur Thyroid J 2015;4:93-8.
49. Wang L, Wang B, Chen SR, Hou X, Wang XF, Zhao SH, et al. Effect of Selenium Supplementation on Recurrent Hyperthyroidism Caused by Graves' Disease: A Prospective Pilot Study. Horm Metab Res 2016;48:559-64.
50. Leo M, Bartalena L, Rotondo Dottore G, Piantanida E, Premoli P, Ionni I, et al. Effects of selenium on short-term control of hyperthyroidism due to Graves' disease treated with methimazole: results of a randomized clinical trial. J Endocrinol Invest 2017;40:281-7.
51. Xu B, Wu D, Ying H, Zhang Y. A pilot study on the beneficial effects of additional selenium supplementation to methimazole for treating patients with Graves' disease. Turk J Med Sci 2019;49:715-22.
52. Winther KH, Bonnema SJ, Hegedus L. Is selenium supplementation in autoimmune thyroid diseases justified? Curr Opin Endocrinol Diabetes Obes 2017;24:348-55.
53. Wang M, Yu Y. Therapeutic Effects of Combination Regimens Including Methimazole on Graves Hyperthyroidism: A Network Meta-Analysis of Randomized Controlled Trials. Endocr Pract 2020;26:675-87.
54. Bednarczuk T, Schomburg L. Challenges and perspectives of selenium supplementation in Graves' disease and orbitopathy. Hormones (Athens) 2020;19:31-9.
55. Kim BY, Jang SY, Choi DH, Jung CH, Mok JO, Kim CH. Anti-inflammatory and Antioxidant Effects of Selenium on Orbital Fibroblasts of Patients With Graves Ophthalmopathy. Ophthalmic Plast Reconstr Surg 2021;37:476-81.
56. Rotondo Dottore G, Chiarini R, De Gregorio M, Leo M, Casini G, Cestari L, et al. Selenium rescues orbital fibroblasts from cell death induced by hydrogen peroxide: another molecular basis for the effects of selenium in graves' orbitopathy. Endocrine 2017;58:386-9.
57. Federige MAF, Romaldini JH, Miklos A, Koike MK, Takei K, Portes ES. Serum selenium and selenoprotein-P levels in autoimmune thyroid diseases patients in a select center: a transversal study. Arch Endocrinol Metab 2017;61:600-7.
58. He M, Wang Y, Wang J, Sui J, Ding X, Chen Z, et al. The potential markers involved in newly diagnosed graves' disease and the development of active graves' orbitopathy. Cytokine 2020;127:154998.
59. Lanzolla G, Marino M, Marcocci C. Selenium in the Treatment of Graves' Hyperthyroidism and Eye Disease. Front Endocrinol (Lausanne) 2020;11:608428.
60. Lumyongsatien M, Bhaktikamala U, Thongtong P, Sintuwong S, Nimitwongsakul O, Kanokkantapong J, et al. Relative selenium insufficiency is a risk factor for developing severe Graves' orbitopathy: a case-control study. BMJ Open Ophthalmol 2021;6:e000713.
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| Files | ||
| Issue | Vol 62 No 1 (2024) | |
| Section | Review Article(s) | |
| DOI | https://doi.org/10.18502/acta.v62i1.16879 | |
| Keywords | ||
| Autoimmunity Graves’ disease Graves’ ophthalmopathy Hashimoto thyroiditis Selenium Thyroid function | ||
| Rights and permissions | |
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This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License. |
How to Cite
1.
Fatourechi V, Heshmati H. Selenium and Graves’ Disease. Acta Med Iran. 2024;62(1):6-14.
