The Association Between COVID-19 and Invasive Pulmonary Aspergillosis: A Challenge for Health Care System
A Challenge for Health Care System
Abstract
The emerging disease of COVID-19 was announced as a pandemic in 2020, with wide prevalence worldwide. After the duration of the pandemic of the disease, reports based on the invasion of Aspergillus into patients' lungs with COVID-19 and their hospitalization in ICU were published by the researchers, which attracted the attention of other researchers to perform such studies. In this review, PubMed, ScienceDirect, Scopus, Springer, Wiley, ProQuest, Sid, Cochrane, and the search engine Google Scholar were searched for publications by the keywords include COVID-19, Aspergillus, SARS-CoV-2, Invasive pulmonary aspergillosis, fungal and viral co-infection or a combination of them. The data were extracted and descriptively discussed. Not many studies have been performed on the association between aspergillosis and COVID-19. However, although the results of the studies suggest some possible causes of these concomitant infections like underlying diseases and prolonged mechanical ventilation, they also recommend further studies. Since the diagnosis of common fungal and viral infections is difficult, the concurrent incidence of these two infections in patients becomes a therapeutic challenge. Accordingly, this issue increased the mortality rate in this group of patients, especially in those hospitalized in ICU. According to the recently performed studies, various problems, including underlying diseases and difficult diagnostic methods of some dangerous diseases like invasive aspergillosis, are discussed in patients with COVID-19.
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2. Crameri R. Allergy and Asthma in Modern Society: A Scientific Approach. Basel: Karger Medical and Scientific Publishers; 2006.
3. Portnoy JM, Barnes CS, Kennedy K. Importance of mold allergy in asthma. Curr Allergy Asthma Rep 2008;8:71-8.
4. Kurup VP, Shen HD, Banerjee B. Respiratory fungal allergy. Microbes Infect 2000;2:1101-10.
5. Dagenais TR, Keller NP. Pathogenesis of Aspergillus fumigatus in Invasive Aspergillosis. Clin Microbiol Rev 2009;22:447-65.
6. Del Bono V, Mikulska M, Viscoli C. Invasive aspergillosis: diagnosis, prophylaxis and treatment. Curr Opin Hematol 2008;15:586-93.
7. Górny RL, Reponen T, Willeke K, Schmechel D, Robine E, Boissier M, et al. Fungal fragments as indoor air biocontaminants. Appl Environ Microbiol 2002;68:3522-31.
8. Johanning E. Bioaerosols, fungi, bacteria, mycotoxins and human health: patho-physiology, clinical effects, exposure assessment, prevention and control in indoor environments and work. Albany (USA): Fungal Research Group Foundation; 2005.
9. Brown GD, Denning DW, Gow NA, Levitz SM, Netea MG, White TC. Hidden killers: human fungal infections. Sci Transl Med 2012;4:165rv113.
10. Romani L. Immunity to fungal infections. Nat Rev Immunol 2011;11:275-88.
11. Maschmeyer G, Haas A, Cornely OA. Invasive aspergillosis: epidemiology, diagnosis and management in immunocompromised patients. Drugs 2007;67:1567-601.
12. Baddley JW. Clinical risk factors for invasive aspergillosis. Med Mycol 2011;49:S7-12.
13. Reichenberger F, Habicht JM, Gratwohl A, Tamm M. Diagnosis and treatment of invasive pulmonary aspergillosis in neutropenic patients. Eur Respir J 2002;19:743-55.
14. Kauffman HF. Innate immune responses to environmental allergens. Clin Rev Allergy Immunol 2006;30:129-40.
15. Martin TR, Frevert CW. Innate immunity in the lungs. Proc Am Thorac Soc 2005;2:403-11.
16. Pylkkänen L, Gullstén H, Majuri ML, Andersson U, Vanhala E, Määttä J, et al. Exposure to Aspergillus fumigatus spores induces chemokine expression in mouse macrophages. Toxicology 2004;200:255-63.
17. Hohl TM, Van Epps HL, Rivera A, Morgan LA, Chen PL, Feldmesser M, et al. Aspergillus fumigatus triggers inflammatory responses by stage-specific beta-glucan display. PLoS Pathog 2005;1:e30.
18. Akbari O, DeKruyff RH, Umetsu DT. Pulmonary dendritic cells producing IL-10 mediate tolerance induced by respiratory exposure to antigen. Nat Immunol 2001;2:725-31.
19. Reis e Sousa C. Dendritic cells in a mature age. Nat Rev Immunol 2006;6:476-83.
20. Spörri R, Reis e Sousa C. Inflammatory mediators are insufficient for full dendritic cell activation and promote expansion of CD4+ T cell populations lacking helper function. Nat Immunol 2005;6:163-70.
21. Bozza S, Gaziano R, Spreca A, Bacci A, Montagnoli C, di Francesco P, et al. Dendritic cells transport conidia and hyphae of Aspergillus fumigatus from the airways to the draining lymph nodes and initiate disparate Th responses to the fungus. J Immunol 2002;168:1362-71.
22. Salehi M, Ahmadikia K, Badali H, Khodavaisy S. Opportunistic Fungal Infections in the Epidemic Area of COVID-19: A Clinical and Diagnostic Perspective from Iran. Mycopathologia 2020;185:607-11.
23. Gangneux JP, Bougnoux ME, Dannaoui E, Cornet M, Zahar JR. Invasive fungal diseases during COVID-19: We should be prepared. J Mycol Med 2020;30:100971.
24. van Arkel ALE, Rijpstra TA, Belderbos HNA, van Wijngaarden P, Verweij PE, Bentvelsen RG. COVID-19-associated Pulmonary Aspergillosis. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2020;202:132-5.
25. Ober C, Thompson EE. Rethinking genetic models of asthma: the role of environmental modifiers. Curr Opin Immunol 2005;17:670-8.
26. von Mutius E. Allergies, infections and the hygiene hypothesis--the epidemiological evidence. Immunobiology 2007;212:433-9.
27. Noverr MC, Huffnagle GB. The 'microflora hypothesis' of allergic diseases. Clin Exp Allergy 2005;35:1511-20.
28. Hakkouni AE, Mansouri N. Invasive pulmonary aspergillosis in a patient with human immunodeficiency virus (HIV). Pan Afr Med J 2018;31:40.
29. Song G, Liang G, Liu W. Fungal Co-infections Associated with Global COVID-19 Pandemic: A Clinical and Diagnostic Perspective from China. Mycopathologia 2020;185:1-8.
30. Zhou P, Yang XL, Wang XG, Hu B, Zhang L, Zhang W, et al. A pneumonia outbreak associated with a new coronavirus of probable bat origin. Nature 2020;579:270-3.
31. Jones VG, Mills M, Suarez D, Hogan CA, Yeh D, Segal JB, et al. COVID-19 and Kawasaki Disease: Novel Virus and Novel Case. Hosp Pediatr 2020;10:537-40.
32. Spagnolo P, Balestro E, Aliberti S, Cocconcelli E, Biondini D, Casa GD, et al. Pulmonary fibrosis secondary to COVID-19: a call to arms? Lancet Respir Med 2020;8:750-2.
33. Lu H, Stratton CW, Tang YW. Outbreak of pneumonia of unknown etiology in Wuhan, China: The mystery and the miracle. J Med Virol 2020;92:401-2.
34. Guo YR, Cao QD, Hong ZS, Tan YY, Chen SD, Jin HJ, et al. The origin, transmission and clinical therapies on coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) outbreak - an update on the status. Mil Med Res 2020;7:11.
35. Armstrong-James D, Youngs J, Bicanic T, Abdolrasouli A, Denning DW, Johnson E, et al. Confronting and mitigating the risk of COVID-19 associated pulmonary aspergillosis. Eur Respir J 2020;56.2002554:
36. Agrifoglio A, Cachafeiro L, Figueira JC, Añón JM, García de Lorenzo A. Critically ill patients with COVID-19 and candidaemia: We must keep this in mind. J Mycol Med 2020;30:101012.
37. Wang H, Ding Y, Li X, Yang L, Zhang W, Kang W. Fatal aspergillosis in a patient with SARS who was treated with corticosteroids. N Engl J Med 2003;349:507-8.
38. Prattes J, Valentin T, Hoenigl M, Talakic E, Reisinger AC, Eller P. Invasive pulmonary aspergillosis complicating COVID-19 in the ICU - A case report. Med Mycol Case Rep 2021;31:2-5.
39. Blaize M, Mayaux J, Nabet C, Lampros A, Marcelin AG, Thellier M, et al. Fatal Invasive Aspergillosis and Coronavirus Disease in an Immunocompetent Patient. Emerg Infect Dis 2020;26:1636-7.
40. Alanio A, Dellière S, Fodil S, Bretagne S, Mégarbane B. Prevalence of putative invasive pulmonary aspergillosis in critically ill patients with COVID-19. Lancet Respir Med 2020;8:e48-9.
41. Chen X, Zhao B, Qu Y, Chen Y, Xiong J, Feng Y, et al. Detectable Serum Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2 Viral Load (RNAemia) Is Closely Correlated With Drastically Elevated Interleukin 6 Level in Critically Ill Patients With Coronavirus Disease 2019. Clin Infect Dis 2020;71:1937-42.
42. Du Y, Tu L, Zhu P, Mu M, Wang R, Yang P, et al. Clinical Features of 85 Fatal Cases of COVID-19 from Wuhan. A Retrospective Observational Study. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2020;201:1372-9.
43. Rutsaert L, Steinfort N, Van Hunsel T, Bomans P, Naesens R, Mertes H, et al. COVID-19-associated invasive pulmonary aspergillosis. Ann Intensive Care 2020;10:71.
44. Wang J, Yang Q, Zhang P, Sheng J, Zhou J, Qu T. Clinical characteristics of invasive pulmonary aspergillosis in patients with COVID-19 in Zhejiang, China: a retrospective case series. Crit Care 2020;24:299.
45. Flikweert AW, Grootenboers M, Yick DCY, du Mée AWF, van der Meer NJM, Rettig TCD, et al. Late histopathologic characteristics of critically ill COVID-19 patients: Different phenotypes without evidence of invasive aspergillosis, a case series. J Crit Care 2020;59:149-55.
46. Gangneux JP, Reizine F, Guegan H, Pinceaux K, Le Balch P, Prat E, et al. Is the COVID-19 Pandemic a Good Time to Include Aspergillus Molecular Detection to Categorize Aspergillosis in ICU Patients? A Monocentric Experience. J Fungi 2020;6:105.
47. Arastehfar A, Carvalho A, van de Veerdonk FL, Jenks JD, Koehler P, Krause R, et al. COVID-19 Associated Pulmonary Aspergillosis (CAPA)-From Immunology to Treatment. J Fungi (Basel) 2020;6:91.
48. Lamoth F, Glampedakis E, Boillat-Blanco N, Oddo M, Pagani JL. Incidence of invasive pulmonary aspergillosis among critically ill COVID-19 patients. Clin Microbiol Infect 2020;26:1706-8.
49. Verweij PE, Gangneux JP, Bassetti M, Brüggemann RJM, Cornely OA, Koehler P, et al. Diagnosing COVID-19-associated pulmonary aspergillosis. Lancet Microbe 2020;1:e53-5.
50. Santana MF, Pivoto G, Alexandre MAA, Baía-da-Silva DC, Borba M, Val FA, et al. Confirmed Invasive Pulmonary Aspergillosis and COVID-19: the value of postmortem findings to support antemortem management. Rev Soc Bras Med Trop 2020;53:e20200401.
51. Antwi-Amoabeng D, Kanji Z, Ford B, Beutler BD, Riddle MS, Siddiqui F. Clinical outcomes in COVID-19 patients treated with tocilizumab: An individual patient data systematic review. J Med Virol 2020;92:2516-22.
52. Ronconi G, Teté G, Kritas SK, Gallenga CE, Caraffa A, Ross R, et al. SARS-CoV-2, which induces COVID-19, causes kawasaki-like disease in children: role of pro-inflammatory and anti-inflammatory cytokines. J Biol Regul Homeost Agents 2020;34:767-73.
53. Yang X, Yu Y, Xu J, Shu H, Xia J, Liu H, et al. Clinical course and outcomes of critically ill patients with SARS-CoV-2 pneumonia in Wuhan, China: a single-centered, retrospective, observational study. Lancet Respir Med 2020;8:475-81.
54. Chen N, Zhou M, Dong X, Qu J, Gong F, Han Y, et al. Epidemiological and clinical characteristics of 99 cases of 2019 novel coronavirus pneumonia in Wuhan, China: a descriptive study. Lancet 2020;395:507-13.
55. van de Veerdonk FL, Kolwijck E, Lestrade PP, Hodiamont CJ, Rijnders BJ, van Paassen J, et al. Influenza-Associated Aspergillosis in Critically Ill Patients. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2017;196:524-7.
56. Verweij PE, Brüggemann RJM, Wauters J, Rijnders BJA, Chiller T, van de Veerdonk FL. Influenza Coinfection: Be(a)ware of Invasive Aspergillosis. Clin Infect Dis 2020;70:349-50.
57. Schauwvlieghe A, Rijnders BJA, Philips N, Verwijs R, Vanderbeke L, Van Tienen C, et al. Invasive aspergillosis in patients admitted to the intensive care unit with severe influenza: a retrospective cohort study. Lancet Respir Med 2018;6:782-92.
58. Mohamed A, Rogers TR, Talento AF. COVID-19 Associated Invasive Pulmonary Aspergillosis: Diagnostic and Therapeutic Challenges. J Fungi (Basel) 2020;6:115.
59. Meijer EFJ, Dofferhoff ASM, Hoiting O, Buil JB, Meis JF. Azole-Resistant COVID-19-Associated Pulmonary Aspergillosis in an Immunocompetent Host: A Case Report. J Fungi (Basel) 2020;6:79.
60. Falces-Romero I, Ruiz-Bastián M, Díaz-Pollán B, Maseda E, García-Rodríguez J. Isolation of Aspergillus spp. in respiratory samples of patients with COVID-19 in a Spanish Tertiary Care Hospital. Mycoses 2020;63:1144-8.
61. Fekkar A, Poignon C, Blaize M, Lampros A. Fungal Infection during COVID-19: Does Aspergillus Mean Secondary Invasive Aspergillosis? Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2020;202:902-3.
62. Burgos A, Zaoutis TE, Dvorak CC, Hoffman JA, Knapp KM, Nania JJ, et al. Pediatric invasive aspergillosis: a multicenter retrospective analysis of 139 contemporary cases. Pediatrics 2008;121:e1286-94.
63. D'Haese J, Theunissen K, Vermeulen E, Schoemans H, De Vlieger G, Lammertijn L, et al. Detection of galactomannan in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid samples of patients at risk for invasive pulmonary aspergillosis: analytical and clinical validity. J Clin Microbiol 2012;50:1258-63.
64. Francesconi A, Kasai M, Petraitiene R, Petraitis V, Kelaher AM, Schaufele R, et al. Characterization and comparison of galactomannan enzyme immunoassay and quantitative real-time PCR assay for detection of Aspergillus fumigatus in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid from experimental invasive pulmonary aspergillosis. J Clin Microbiol 2006;44:2475-80.
65. Hope WW, Walsh TJ, Denning DW. Laboratory diagnosis of invasive aspergillosis. Lancet Infect Dis 2005;5:609-22.
66. Zou M, Tang L, Zhao S, Zhao Z, Chen L, Chen P, et al. Systematic review and meta-analysis of detecting galactomannan in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid for diagnosing invasive aspergillosis. PLoS One 2012;7:e43347.
2. Crameri R. Allergy and Asthma in Modern Society: A Scientific Approach. Basel: Karger Medical and Scientific Publishers; 2006.
3. Portnoy JM, Barnes CS, Kennedy K. Importance of mold allergy in asthma. Curr Allergy Asthma Rep 2008;8:71-8.
4. Kurup VP, Shen HD, Banerjee B. Respiratory fungal allergy. Microbes Infect 2000;2:1101-10.
5. Dagenais TR, Keller NP. Pathogenesis of Aspergillus fumigatus in Invasive Aspergillosis. Clin Microbiol Rev 2009;22:447-65.
6. Del Bono V, Mikulska M, Viscoli C. Invasive aspergillosis: diagnosis, prophylaxis and treatment. Curr Opin Hematol 2008;15:586-93.
7. Górny RL, Reponen T, Willeke K, Schmechel D, Robine E, Boissier M, et al. Fungal fragments as indoor air biocontaminants. Appl Environ Microbiol 2002;68:3522-31.
8. Johanning E. Bioaerosols, fungi, bacteria, mycotoxins and human health: patho-physiology, clinical effects, exposure assessment, prevention and control in indoor environments and work. Albany (USA): Fungal Research Group Foundation; 2005.
9. Brown GD, Denning DW, Gow NA, Levitz SM, Netea MG, White TC. Hidden killers: human fungal infections. Sci Transl Med 2012;4:165rv113.
10. Romani L. Immunity to fungal infections. Nat Rev Immunol 2011;11:275-88.
11. Maschmeyer G, Haas A, Cornely OA. Invasive aspergillosis: epidemiology, diagnosis and management in immunocompromised patients. Drugs 2007;67:1567-601.
12. Baddley JW. Clinical risk factors for invasive aspergillosis. Med Mycol 2011;49:S7-12.
13. Reichenberger F, Habicht JM, Gratwohl A, Tamm M. Diagnosis and treatment of invasive pulmonary aspergillosis in neutropenic patients. Eur Respir J 2002;19:743-55.
14. Kauffman HF. Innate immune responses to environmental allergens. Clin Rev Allergy Immunol 2006;30:129-40.
15. Martin TR, Frevert CW. Innate immunity in the lungs. Proc Am Thorac Soc 2005;2:403-11.
16. Pylkkänen L, Gullstén H, Majuri ML, Andersson U, Vanhala E, Määttä J, et al. Exposure to Aspergillus fumigatus spores induces chemokine expression in mouse macrophages. Toxicology 2004;200:255-63.
17. Hohl TM, Van Epps HL, Rivera A, Morgan LA, Chen PL, Feldmesser M, et al. Aspergillus fumigatus triggers inflammatory responses by stage-specific beta-glucan display. PLoS Pathog 2005;1:e30.
18. Akbari O, DeKruyff RH, Umetsu DT. Pulmonary dendritic cells producing IL-10 mediate tolerance induced by respiratory exposure to antigen. Nat Immunol 2001;2:725-31.
19. Reis e Sousa C. Dendritic cells in a mature age. Nat Rev Immunol 2006;6:476-83.
20. Spörri R, Reis e Sousa C. Inflammatory mediators are insufficient for full dendritic cell activation and promote expansion of CD4+ T cell populations lacking helper function. Nat Immunol 2005;6:163-70.
21. Bozza S, Gaziano R, Spreca A, Bacci A, Montagnoli C, di Francesco P, et al. Dendritic cells transport conidia and hyphae of Aspergillus fumigatus from the airways to the draining lymph nodes and initiate disparate Th responses to the fungus. J Immunol 2002;168:1362-71.
22. Salehi M, Ahmadikia K, Badali H, Khodavaisy S. Opportunistic Fungal Infections in the Epidemic Area of COVID-19: A Clinical and Diagnostic Perspective from Iran. Mycopathologia 2020;185:607-11.
23. Gangneux JP, Bougnoux ME, Dannaoui E, Cornet M, Zahar JR. Invasive fungal diseases during COVID-19: We should be prepared. J Mycol Med 2020;30:100971.
24. van Arkel ALE, Rijpstra TA, Belderbos HNA, van Wijngaarden P, Verweij PE, Bentvelsen RG. COVID-19-associated Pulmonary Aspergillosis. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2020;202:132-5.
25. Ober C, Thompson EE. Rethinking genetic models of asthma: the role of environmental modifiers. Curr Opin Immunol 2005;17:670-8.
26. von Mutius E. Allergies, infections and the hygiene hypothesis--the epidemiological evidence. Immunobiology 2007;212:433-9.
27. Noverr MC, Huffnagle GB. The 'microflora hypothesis' of allergic diseases. Clin Exp Allergy 2005;35:1511-20.
28. Hakkouni AE, Mansouri N. Invasive pulmonary aspergillosis in a patient with human immunodeficiency virus (HIV). Pan Afr Med J 2018;31:40.
29. Song G, Liang G, Liu W. Fungal Co-infections Associated with Global COVID-19 Pandemic: A Clinical and Diagnostic Perspective from China. Mycopathologia 2020;185:1-8.
30. Zhou P, Yang XL, Wang XG, Hu B, Zhang L, Zhang W, et al. A pneumonia outbreak associated with a new coronavirus of probable bat origin. Nature 2020;579:270-3.
31. Jones VG, Mills M, Suarez D, Hogan CA, Yeh D, Segal JB, et al. COVID-19 and Kawasaki Disease: Novel Virus and Novel Case. Hosp Pediatr 2020;10:537-40.
32. Spagnolo P, Balestro E, Aliberti S, Cocconcelli E, Biondini D, Casa GD, et al. Pulmonary fibrosis secondary to COVID-19: a call to arms? Lancet Respir Med 2020;8:750-2.
33. Lu H, Stratton CW, Tang YW. Outbreak of pneumonia of unknown etiology in Wuhan, China: The mystery and the miracle. J Med Virol 2020;92:401-2.
34. Guo YR, Cao QD, Hong ZS, Tan YY, Chen SD, Jin HJ, et al. The origin, transmission and clinical therapies on coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) outbreak - an update on the status. Mil Med Res 2020;7:11.
35. Armstrong-James D, Youngs J, Bicanic T, Abdolrasouli A, Denning DW, Johnson E, et al. Confronting and mitigating the risk of COVID-19 associated pulmonary aspergillosis. Eur Respir J 2020;56.2002554:
36. Agrifoglio A, Cachafeiro L, Figueira JC, Añón JM, García de Lorenzo A. Critically ill patients with COVID-19 and candidaemia: We must keep this in mind. J Mycol Med 2020;30:101012.
37. Wang H, Ding Y, Li X, Yang L, Zhang W, Kang W. Fatal aspergillosis in a patient with SARS who was treated with corticosteroids. N Engl J Med 2003;349:507-8.
38. Prattes J, Valentin T, Hoenigl M, Talakic E, Reisinger AC, Eller P. Invasive pulmonary aspergillosis complicating COVID-19 in the ICU - A case report. Med Mycol Case Rep 2021;31:2-5.
39. Blaize M, Mayaux J, Nabet C, Lampros A, Marcelin AG, Thellier M, et al. Fatal Invasive Aspergillosis and Coronavirus Disease in an Immunocompetent Patient. Emerg Infect Dis 2020;26:1636-7.
40. Alanio A, Dellière S, Fodil S, Bretagne S, Mégarbane B. Prevalence of putative invasive pulmonary aspergillosis in critically ill patients with COVID-19. Lancet Respir Med 2020;8:e48-9.
41. Chen X, Zhao B, Qu Y, Chen Y, Xiong J, Feng Y, et al. Detectable Serum Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2 Viral Load (RNAemia) Is Closely Correlated With Drastically Elevated Interleukin 6 Level in Critically Ill Patients With Coronavirus Disease 2019. Clin Infect Dis 2020;71:1937-42.
42. Du Y, Tu L, Zhu P, Mu M, Wang R, Yang P, et al. Clinical Features of 85 Fatal Cases of COVID-19 from Wuhan. A Retrospective Observational Study. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2020;201:1372-9.
43. Rutsaert L, Steinfort N, Van Hunsel T, Bomans P, Naesens R, Mertes H, et al. COVID-19-associated invasive pulmonary aspergillosis. Ann Intensive Care 2020;10:71.
44. Wang J, Yang Q, Zhang P, Sheng J, Zhou J, Qu T. Clinical characteristics of invasive pulmonary aspergillosis in patients with COVID-19 in Zhejiang, China: a retrospective case series. Crit Care 2020;24:299.
45. Flikweert AW, Grootenboers M, Yick DCY, du Mée AWF, van der Meer NJM, Rettig TCD, et al. Late histopathologic characteristics of critically ill COVID-19 patients: Different phenotypes without evidence of invasive aspergillosis, a case series. J Crit Care 2020;59:149-55.
46. Gangneux JP, Reizine F, Guegan H, Pinceaux K, Le Balch P, Prat E, et al. Is the COVID-19 Pandemic a Good Time to Include Aspergillus Molecular Detection to Categorize Aspergillosis in ICU Patients? A Monocentric Experience. J Fungi 2020;6:105.
47. Arastehfar A, Carvalho A, van de Veerdonk FL, Jenks JD, Koehler P, Krause R, et al. COVID-19 Associated Pulmonary Aspergillosis (CAPA)-From Immunology to Treatment. J Fungi (Basel) 2020;6:91.
48. Lamoth F, Glampedakis E, Boillat-Blanco N, Oddo M, Pagani JL. Incidence of invasive pulmonary aspergillosis among critically ill COVID-19 patients. Clin Microbiol Infect 2020;26:1706-8.
49. Verweij PE, Gangneux JP, Bassetti M, Brüggemann RJM, Cornely OA, Koehler P, et al. Diagnosing COVID-19-associated pulmonary aspergillosis. Lancet Microbe 2020;1:e53-5.
50. Santana MF, Pivoto G, Alexandre MAA, Baía-da-Silva DC, Borba M, Val FA, et al. Confirmed Invasive Pulmonary Aspergillosis and COVID-19: the value of postmortem findings to support antemortem management. Rev Soc Bras Med Trop 2020;53:e20200401.
51. Antwi-Amoabeng D, Kanji Z, Ford B, Beutler BD, Riddle MS, Siddiqui F. Clinical outcomes in COVID-19 patients treated with tocilizumab: An individual patient data systematic review. J Med Virol 2020;92:2516-22.
52. Ronconi G, Teté G, Kritas SK, Gallenga CE, Caraffa A, Ross R, et al. SARS-CoV-2, which induces COVID-19, causes kawasaki-like disease in children: role of pro-inflammatory and anti-inflammatory cytokines. J Biol Regul Homeost Agents 2020;34:767-73.
53. Yang X, Yu Y, Xu J, Shu H, Xia J, Liu H, et al. Clinical course and outcomes of critically ill patients with SARS-CoV-2 pneumonia in Wuhan, China: a single-centered, retrospective, observational study. Lancet Respir Med 2020;8:475-81.
54. Chen N, Zhou M, Dong X, Qu J, Gong F, Han Y, et al. Epidemiological and clinical characteristics of 99 cases of 2019 novel coronavirus pneumonia in Wuhan, China: a descriptive study. Lancet 2020;395:507-13.
55. van de Veerdonk FL, Kolwijck E, Lestrade PP, Hodiamont CJ, Rijnders BJ, van Paassen J, et al. Influenza-Associated Aspergillosis in Critically Ill Patients. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2017;196:524-7.
56. Verweij PE, Brüggemann RJM, Wauters J, Rijnders BJA, Chiller T, van de Veerdonk FL. Influenza Coinfection: Be(a)ware of Invasive Aspergillosis. Clin Infect Dis 2020;70:349-50.
57. Schauwvlieghe A, Rijnders BJA, Philips N, Verwijs R, Vanderbeke L, Van Tienen C, et al. Invasive aspergillosis in patients admitted to the intensive care unit with severe influenza: a retrospective cohort study. Lancet Respir Med 2018;6:782-92.
58. Mohamed A, Rogers TR, Talento AF. COVID-19 Associated Invasive Pulmonary Aspergillosis: Diagnostic and Therapeutic Challenges. J Fungi (Basel) 2020;6:115.
59. Meijer EFJ, Dofferhoff ASM, Hoiting O, Buil JB, Meis JF. Azole-Resistant COVID-19-Associated Pulmonary Aspergillosis in an Immunocompetent Host: A Case Report. J Fungi (Basel) 2020;6:79.
60. Falces-Romero I, Ruiz-Bastián M, Díaz-Pollán B, Maseda E, García-Rodríguez J. Isolation of Aspergillus spp. in respiratory samples of patients with COVID-19 in a Spanish Tertiary Care Hospital. Mycoses 2020;63:1144-8.
61. Fekkar A, Poignon C, Blaize M, Lampros A. Fungal Infection during COVID-19: Does Aspergillus Mean Secondary Invasive Aspergillosis? Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2020;202:902-3.
62. Burgos A, Zaoutis TE, Dvorak CC, Hoffman JA, Knapp KM, Nania JJ, et al. Pediatric invasive aspergillosis: a multicenter retrospective analysis of 139 contemporary cases. Pediatrics 2008;121:e1286-94.
63. D'Haese J, Theunissen K, Vermeulen E, Schoemans H, De Vlieger G, Lammertijn L, et al. Detection of galactomannan in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid samples of patients at risk for invasive pulmonary aspergillosis: analytical and clinical validity. J Clin Microbiol 2012;50:1258-63.
64. Francesconi A, Kasai M, Petraitiene R, Petraitis V, Kelaher AM, Schaufele R, et al. Characterization and comparison of galactomannan enzyme immunoassay and quantitative real-time PCR assay for detection of Aspergillus fumigatus in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid from experimental invasive pulmonary aspergillosis. J Clin Microbiol 2006;44:2475-80.
65. Hope WW, Walsh TJ, Denning DW. Laboratory diagnosis of invasive aspergillosis. Lancet Infect Dis 2005;5:609-22.
66. Zou M, Tang L, Zhao S, Zhao Z, Chen L, Chen P, et al. Systematic review and meta-analysis of detecting galactomannan in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid for diagnosing invasive aspergillosis. PLoS One 2012;7:e43347.
| Files | ||
| Issue | Vol 60, No 6 (2022) | |
| Section | Review Article(s) | |
| DOI | https://doi.org/10.18502/acta.v60i6.10036 | |
| Keywords | ||
| : Immunosuppressive agents Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) Glucocorticoids Galactomannan Co-infection | ||
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How to Cite
1.
Arianezhad A, Azizolahi B, Ghaffaripour R. The Association Between COVID-19 and Invasive Pulmonary Aspergillosis: A Challenge for Health Care System. Acta Med Iran. 2022;60(6):322-328.
