Original Article

An Epidemiological Survey on Kidney Stones and Related Risk Factors in the Iranian Community

Abstract

 Increasing number of patients with kidney stones is a major worldwide concern that needs more attention for recognizing the disease in order to set up suitable prevention systems. In this study, we aimed to assess the prevalence and related risk factors of kidney stones in our local area (Isfahan, Iran). In 2011, we celebrated World Kidney Day (WKD) with several training programs for informing people about kidney diseases. A questionnaire containing demographic data, past medical history, and familial and self-history of kidney disease was fulfilled by each individual who participated in WKD. Blood pressure and body mass index (BMI) were also measured using standard methods. Statistical analysis with SPSS-20 software was done. 556 participants with a mean age of 44.69±15.32 were included in the study, of which 107 cases (19.2%) with a mean age of 50.24±12.33 had a kidney stone, and 449 cases (80.8%) with a mean age of 44.69±15.32 had no history of kidney stone. There were no significant differences between those with and without kidney stones regarding sex (P=0.176), type of daily work (P=0.91), diabetes mellitus (P=0.64), and place of living (urban versus rural) (P=0.92) and BMI (P=0.26). However, there were differences between groups regarding age (P˂0.001), Hypertension (HTN) (P=001), Cardiovascular disease (CVD) (P=0.02), and familial history of kidney stone (P˂0.001). Out of 107 patients with kidney stones, the mean number of urinary excretion of stones was 2.56±2.98. We found a greater prevalence of kidney stones in our local area compared with data from other research studies. Despite some previous studies, comparison of people with and without kidney stones did not reveal differences in the prevalence of DM, type of daily work (low activity versus high activity), and obesity but differences in the field of HTN and CVD were seen.

1. Cupisti A, Morelli E, Meola M, Cozza V, Parrucci M, Barsotti G. Hypertension in kidney stone patients. Nephron. 1996;73(4):569-72.
2. Radimer K, Bindewald B, Hughes J, Ervin B, Swanson C, Picciano MF. Dietary supplement use by US adults: data from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey, 1999-2000. AmJEpidemiol. 2004;160(4):339-49.
3. Stamatelou KK, Francis ME, Jones CA, Nyberg LM, Curhan GC. Time trends in reported prevalence of kidney stones in the United States: 1976-1994. Kidney Int. 2003;63(5):1817-23.
4. Akoudad S, Szklo M, McAdams MA, Fulop T, Anderson CA, Coresh J, et al. Correlates of kidney stone disease differ by race in a multi-ethnic middle-aged population: the ARIC study. PrevMed. 2010;51(5):416-20.
5. Han H, Segal AM, Seifter JL, Dwyer JT. Nutritional Management of Kidney Stones (Nephrolithiasis). Clinical nutrition research. 2015;4(3):137-52.
6. Atan L, Andreoni C, Ortiz V, Silva EK, Pitta R, Atan F, et al. High kidney stone risk in men working in steel industry at hot temperatures. Urology. 2005;65(5):858-61.
7. Curhan GC, Rimm EB, Willett WC, Stampfer MJ. Regional variation in nephrolithiasis incidence and prevalence among United States men. JUrol. 1994;151(4):838-41.
8. Curhan GC, Willett WC, Rimm EB, Speizer FE, Stampfer MJ. Body size and risk of kidney stones. JAmSocNephrol. 1998;9(9):1645-52.
9. Curhan GC, Willett WC, Rimm EB, Stampfer MJ. A prospective study of dietary calcium and other nutrients and the risk of symptomatic kidney stones. NEnglJMed. 1993;328(12):833-8.
10. Daudon M, Traxer O, Conort P, Lacour B, Jungers P. Type 2 diabetes increases the risk for uric acid stones. JAmSocNephrol. 2006;17(7):2026-33.
11. Edvardsson VO, Palsson R, Indridason OS, Thorvaldsson S, Stefansson K. Familiality of kidney stone disease in Iceland. ScandJUrolNephrol. 2009;43(5):420-4.
12. Sakhaee K. Nephrolithiasis as a systemic disorder. CurrOpinNephrolHypertens. 2008;17(3):304-9.
13. Siener R. Impact of dietary habits on stone incidence. UrolRes. 2006;34(2):131-3.
14. Soucie JM, Coates RJ, McClellan W, Austin H, Thun M. Relation between geographic variability in kidney stones prevalence and risk factors for stones. AmJEpidemiol. 1996;143(5):487-95.
15. Taylor EN, Stampfer MJ, Curhan GC. Diabetes mellitus and the risk of nephrolithiasis. Kidney Int. 2005;68(3):1230-5.
16. Taylor EN, Stampfer MJ, Curhan GC. Obesity, weight gain, and the risk of kidney stones. JAMA. 2005;293(4):455-62.
17. Sakhaee K, Maalouf NM. Metabolic syndrome and uric acid nephrolithiasis. SeminNephrol. 2008;28(2):174-80.
18. Kok DJ, Iestra JA, Doorenbos CJ, Papapoulos SE. The effects of dietary excesses in animal protein and in sodium on the composition and the crystallization kinetics of calcium oxalate monohydrate in urines of healthy men. The Journal of clinical endocrinology and metabolism. 1990;71(4):861-7.
19. Lemann J, Jr., Worcester EM, Gray RW. Hypercalciuria and stones. American journal of kidney diseases : the official journal of the National Kidney Foundation. 1991;17(4):386-91.
20. Asplin JR. Evaluation of the kidney stone patient. SeminNephrol. 2008;28(2):99-110.
21. Matlaga BR, Schaeffer AJ, Novak TE, Trock BJ. Epidemiologic insights into pediatric kidney stone disease. UrolRes. 2010;38(6):453-7.
22. Scales CD, Jr., Smith AC, Hanley JM, Saigal CS, Urologic Diseases in America P. Prevalence of kidney stones in the United States. European urology. 2012;62(1):160-5.
23. Zeng Q, He Y. Age-specific prevalence of kidney stones in Chinese urban inhabitants. Urolithiasis. 2013;41(1):91-3.
24. Bihl G, Meyers A. Recurrent renal stone disease-advances in pathogenesis and clinical management. Lancet. 2001;358(9282):651-6.
25. Emami-Naini A, Eshraghi A, Shahidi S, Mortazavi M, Seyrafian S, Roomizadeh P, et al. Metabolic evaluation in patients with nephrolithiasis: A report from Isfahan, Iran. Advanced biomedical research. 2012;1:65.
26. Arrabal-Polo MA, Arrabal-Martin M, Garrido-Gomez J. Calcium renal lithiasis: metabolic diagnosis and medical treatment. Sao Paulo medical journal = Revista paulista de medicina. 2013;131(1):46-53.
27. Mehmet NM, Ender O. Effect of urinary stone disease and its treatment on renal function. World journal of nephrology. 2015;4(2):271-6.
28. Ando R, Nagaya T, Suzuki S, Takahashi H, Kawai M, Okada A, et al. Kidney stone formation is positively associated with conventional risk factors for coronary heart disease in Japanese men. The Journal of urology. 2013;189(4):1340-6.
29. Jungers P, Joly D, Barbey F, Choukroun G, Daudon M. ESRD caused by nephrolithiasis: prevalence, mechanisms, and prevention. American journal of kidney diseases : the official journal of the National Kidney Foundation. 2004;44(5):799-805.
30. Massey LK, Liebman M, Kynast-Gales SA. Ascorbate increases human oxaluria and kidney stone risk. JNutr. 2005;135(7):1673-7.
31. Urivetzky M, Kessaris D, Smith AD. Ascorbic acid overdosing: a risk factor for calcium oxalate nephrolithiasis. JUrol. 1992;147(5):1215-8.
32. Baxmann AC, De OGM, Heilberg IP. Effect of vitamin C supplements on urinary oxalate and pH in calcium stone-forming patients. Kidney Int. 2003;63(3):1066-71.
33. Chalmers AH, Cowley DM, Brown JM. A possible etiological role for ascorbate in calculi formation. ClinChem. 1986;32(2):333-6.
34. Traxer O, Huet B, Poindexter J, Pak CY, Pearle MS. Effect of ascorbic acid consumption on urinary stone risk factors. JUrol. 2003;170(2 Pt 1):397-401.
35. Briggs M. Letter: Vitamin-C-induced hyperoxaluria. Lancet. 1976;1(7951):154.
36. Grases F, March JG, Prieto RM, Simonet BM, Costa-Bauza A, Garcia-Raja A, et al. Urinary phytate in calcium oxalate stone formers and healthy people--dietary effects on phytate excretion. Scandinavian journal of urology and nephrology. 2000;34(3):162-4.
37. Ahmadi Asr Badr Y, Hazhir S, Hasanzadeh K. Family history and age at the onset of upper urinary tract calculi. Urology journal. 2007;4(3):142-5; discussion 5-6.
38. Goldfarb DS, Hirsch J. Hypothesis: Urbanization and exposure to urban heat islands contribute to increasing prevalence of kidney stones. Medical hypotheses. 2015.
Files
IssueVol 60, No 5 (2022) QRcode
SectionOriginal Article(s)
DOI https://doi.org/10.18502/acta.v60i5.9558
Keywords
Kidney stone Risk factors Iranian community
Rights and permissions
Creative Commons License This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License.
How to Cite
1.
Shahidi S, Dolatkhah S, Mortazavi M, Atapour A, Aghaaliakbari F, Meamar R, Badri M, Taheri D. An Epidemiological Survey on Kidney Stones and Related Risk Factors in the Iranian Community. Acta Med Iran. 2022;60(5):307-312.