Coronaviruses Pathogens in Human in Third Millennium (SARS-CoV, MERS, COVID-19): A Review Article
,
Abstract
This study aimed to investigate the most common Coronavirus pathogens in humans in the third millennium. In this study, all documents in English on pathogenic coronaviruses were examined from the beginning of 2002 to March 27, 2020. Articles were searched through reliable databases such as PubMed, Web of Science, Scopus, Google scholar, Science Direct, Cochrane library, and BioRxiv using the keywords "COVID-19", "Coronavirus 2019", "SARS-CoV," and" MERS-CoV." In addition, reliable health websites, such as WHO and the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), were used to obtain new figures and information on these diseases. A total of 1563 articles and documents were extracted, and after reviewing the full texts of these articles, 100 papers and documents with necessary eligibility were finally selected in the present review study. The outbreak of pathogenic viruses, especially the latest one, i.e., COVID-19, as a severe threat can affect the entire global community, in particular medical staff who are at the forefront of fighting against the virus. It can generally be concluded that coronaviruses have high pathogenesis, with very rapid person-to-person transmission. Since human knowledge is not yet complete about the new type of this virus, i.e., COVID-19, there are no definitive treatments for the virus. Thus, the best and only way to prevent affection from this virus is currently fully implementing health protocols and preventing self-infection and the virus outbreak.
1. Cui J, Li F, Shi ZL. Origin and evolution of pathogenic coronaviruses. Nat Rev Microbiol 2019;17:181-92.
2. Prajapat M, Sarma P, Shekhar N, Avti P, Sinha S, Kaur H, et al. Drug targets for corona virus: A systematic review. Indian J Pharmacol 2020;52:56-65.
3. Su S, Wong G, Shi W, Liu J, Lai ACK, Zhou J, et al. Epidemiology, Genetic Recombination, and Pathogenesis of Coronaviruses. Trends Microbiol 2016;24:490-502.
4. Zhu N, Zhang D, Wang W, Li X, Yang B, Song J, et al. A novel coronavirus from patients with pneumonia in China, 2019. N Engl J Med 2020;382:727-33.
5. Sheahan TP, Sims AC, Leist SR, Schäfer A, Won J, Brown AJ, et al. Comparative therapeutic efficacy of remdesivir and combination lopinavir, ritonavir, and interferon beta against MERS-CoV. Nat Commun 2020;11:222.
6. Lau SK, Chan JF. Coronaviruses: Emerging and re-emerging pathogens in humans and animals. Virol J 2015;12;209.
7. Yang Y, Peng F, Wang R, Guan K, Jiang T, Xu G, et al. The deadly coronaviruses: The 2003 SARS pandemic and the 2020 novel coronavirus epidemic in China. J Autoimmun 2020; 109:102434.
8. Farooq HZ, Davies E, Ahmad S, Machin N, Hesketh L, Guiver M, et al. Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus (MERS-CoV) — Surveillance and testing in North England from 2012 to 2019. Int J Infect Dis 2020;93:237-44.
9. Menachery VD, Yount BL, Debbink K, Agnihothram S, Gralinski LE, Plante JA, et al. Erratum: A SARS-like cluster of circulating bat coronaviruses shows potential for human emergence. Nat Med 2015:21,12, 1508-13.
10. Zaki AM, Van Boheemen S, Bestebroer TM, Osterhaus ADME, Fouchier RAM. Isolation of a novel coronavirus from a man with pneumonia in Saudi Arabia. N Engl J Med 2012;367:1814-20.
11. Chughtai AA, Seale H, Islam MS, Owais M, Macintyre CR. Policies on the use of respiratory protection for hospital health workers to protect from coronavirus disease (COVID-19). Int J Nurs Stud 2020;105:103567.
12. Koo JR, Cook AR, Park M, Sun Y, Sun H, Lim JT, et al. Interventions to mitigate early spread of SARS-CoV-2 in Singapore: a modelling study. Lancet Infect Dis 2020;20:678-88.
13. Chan JF, Yuan S, Kok KH, To KK, Chu H, Yang J, et al. A familial cluster of pneumonia associated with the 2019 novel coronavirus indicating person-to-person transmission: a study of a family cluster. Lancet 2020;395:514-23.
14. Swiss Academy Of Medical S. COVID-19 pandemic: triage for intensive-care treatment under resource scarcity. (revised version 3.1, 17 December 2020). Swiss medical weekly. Swiss Med Wkly 2021;151:w20458.
15. Lai CC, Shih TP, Ko WC, Tang HJ, Hsueh PR. Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) and coronavirus disease-2019 (COVID-19): The epidemic and the challenges. Int J Antimicrob Agents 2020;55:105924.
16. Lu R, Zhao X, Li J, Niu P, Yang B, Wu H, et al. Genomic characterisation and epidemiology of 2019 novel coronavirus: implications for virus origins and receptor binding. Lancet 2020;395:565-74.
17. Dyall J, Gross R, Kindrachuk J, Johnson RF, Olinger GG, Hensley LE, et al. Middle East Respiratory Syndrome and Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome: Current Therapeutic Options and Potential Targets for Novel Therapies. Drugs. 2017;77:1935-66.
18. Li W, Shi Z, Yu M, Ren W, Smith C, Epstein JH, et al. Bats are natural reservoirs of SARS-like coronaviruses. Science 2005;310:676-9.
19. Lau SK, Woo PC, Li KS, Huang Y, Tsoi HW, Wong BH, et al. Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-like virus in Chinese horseshoe bats. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2005;102:14040-5.
20. Hu B, Ge X, Wang LF, Shi Z. Bat origin of human coronaviruses Coronaviruses: Emerging and re-emerging pathogens in humans and animals Susanna Lau Positive-strand RNA viruses. Virol J 2015;12:221.
21. Adney DR, van Doremalen N, Brown VR, Bushmaker T, Scott D, de Wit E, et al. Replication and shedding of MERS-CoV in upper respiratory tract of inoculated dromedary camels. Emerg Infect Dis 2014;20:1999-2005.
22. Giovanetti M, Angeletti S, Benvenuto D, Ciccozzi M. A doubt of multiple introduction of SARS-CoV-2 in Italy: A preliminary overview. J Med Virol 2020;92:1634-6.
23. Wu F, Zhao S, Yu B, Chen YM, Wang W, Song ZG, et al. A new coronavirus associated with human respiratory disease in China. Nature 2020;579:265-9.
24. Zhang SF, Tuo JL, Huang XB, Zhu X, Zhang DM, Zhou K, et al. Epidemiology characteristics of human coronaviruses in patients with respiratory infection symptoms and phylogenetic analysis of HCoV-OC43 during 2010-2015 in Guangzhou. PLoS One 2018;13:e0191789.
25. Andersen KG, Rambaut A, Lipkin WI, Holmes EC, Garry RF. The proximal origin of SARS-CoV-2. Nat Med 2020;26:450-2.
26. Qiu W, Chu C, Mao A, Wu J. The impacts on health, society, and economy of SARS and H7N9 Outbreaks in China: A Case Comparison Study. J Environ Public Health 2018;2018:2710185.
27. Revised US. Surveillance case definition for Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome (SARS) and update on SARS cases - United States and worldwide, december 2003. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 2003;52:1202-6.
28. Organization WH. Summary table of SARS cases by country November 1, 2002- August 7, 2003. (Accessed at http://www.who.int/csr/sars/country/2003_08_15/en/.)
29. Song HD, Tu CC, Zhang GW, Wang SY, Zheng K, Lei LC, et al. Cross-host evolution of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus in palm civet and human. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2005;102:2430-5.
30. Guan Y, Zheng BJ, He YQ, Liu XL, Zhuang ZX, Cheung CL, et al. Isolation and characterization of viruses related to the SARS coronavirus from animals in Southern China. Science 2003;302:276-8.
31. O'Keefe LC. Middle east respiratory syndrome coronavirus. Workplace Health Saf 2016;64:184-6.
32. Organization WH. Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus (MERS-CoV) Jan 30, 2020 (Accessed at http://www.who.int/emergencies/mers-cov/en/.)
33. Adhikari SP, Meng S, Wu YJ, Mao YP, Ye RX, Wang QZ, et al. Epidemiology, causes, clinical manifestation and diagnosis, prevention and control of coronavirus disease (COVID-19) during the early outbreak period: A scoping review. Infect Dis Poverty 2020;9:29.
34. Chang D, Lin M, Wei L, Xie L, Zhu G, Dela Cruz CS, et al. Epidemiologic and Clinical Characteristics of Novel Coronavirus Infections Involving 13 Patients Outside Wuhan, China. JAMA 2020;323:1092-3.
35. Qiu H, Wu J, Hong L, Luo Y, Song Q, Chen D. Clinical and epidemiological features of 36 children with coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) in Zhejiang, China: an observational cohort study. Lancet Infect Dis 2020;20:689-96.
36. Li Q, Guan X, Wu P, Wang X, Zhou L, Tong Y, et al. Early transmission dynamics in Wuhan, China, of novel coronavirus-infected pneumonia. N Engl J Med 2020;382:1199-207.
37. Huang C, Wang Y, Li X, Ren L, Zhao J, Hu Y, et al. Clinical features of patients infected with 2019 novel coronavirus in Wuhan, China. Lancet 2020;395:497-506.
38. Lescure FX, Bouadma L, Nguyen D, Parisey M, Wicky PH, Behillil S, et al. Clinical and virological data of the first cases of COVID-19 in Europe: a case series. Lancet Infect Dis 2020;20:697-706.
39. Hui DS. An overview on severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS). Monaldi Arch Chest Dis 2005;63:149-57.
40. Fehr AR, Perlman S. Coronaviruses: An overview of their replication and pathogenesis. Methods Mol Biol 2015;1282:1-23.
41. Assiri A, Al-Tawfiq JA, Al-Rabeeah AA, Al-Rabiah FA, Al-Hajjar S, Al-Barrak A, et al. Epidemiological, demographic, and clinical characteristics of 47 cases of Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus disease from Saudi Arabia: A descriptive study. Lancet Infect Dis 2013;13:752-61.
42. Chowell G, Abdirizak F, Lee S, Lee J, Jung E, Nishiura H, et al. Transmission characteristics of MERS and SARS in the healthcare setting: A comparative study. BMC Med 2015;13:210.
43. Organization WH. Situation reports 22 Feb 2020 (Accessed at https://www.who.int/emergencies/diseases/novel-coronavirus-2019/situation-reports/.)
44. Wu YC, Chen CS, Chan YJ. Overview of the 2019 Novel Coronavirus (2019-nCoV): The Pathogen of Severe Specific Contagious Pneumonia (SSCP). J Chin Med Assoc 2020;83:1.
45. Zumla A, Hui DS, Perlman S. Middle East respiratory syndrome. Lancet 2015;386:995-1007.
46. Rasmussen SA, Watson AK, Swerdlow DL. Middle east respiratory syndrome (MERS). Microbiol Spectr 2016;4.
47. Al-Osail AM, Al-Wazzah MJ. The history and epidemiology of Middle East respiratory syndrome corona virus. Multidiscip Respir Med 2017;12:20.
48. Chan PK, Tang JW, Hui DS. SARS: Clinical presentation, transmission, pathogenesis and treatment options. Clin Sci (Lond) 2006;110:193-204.
49. Arabi YM, Arifi AA, Balkhy HH, Najm H, Aldawood AS, Ghabashi A, et al. Clinical course and outcomes of critically ill patients with middle east respiratory syndrome coronavirus infection. Ann Intern Med 2014;160:389-97.
50. Ajlan AM, Ahyad RA, Jamjoom LG, Alharthy A, Madani TA. Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus (MERS-CoV) infection: Chest CT findings. AJR Am J Roentgenol 2014;203:782-7.
51. Chen N, Zhou M, Dong X, Qu J, Gong F, Han Y, et al. Epidemiological and clinical characteristics of 99 cases of 2019 novel coronavirus pneumonia in Wuhan, China: a descriptive study. Lancet 2020;395:507-13.
52. Zhou P, Yang XL, Wang XG, Hu B, Zhang L, Zhang W, et al. A pneumonia outbreak associated with a new coronavirus of probable bat origin. Nature 2020;579:270-3.
53. Zou L, Ruan F, Huang M, Liang L, Huang H, Hong Z, et al. SARS-CoV-2 viral load in upper respiratory specimens of infected patients. N Engl J Med 2020;382:1177-9.
54. Christian MD, Poutanen SM, Loutfy MR, Muller MP, Low DE. Severe acute respiratory syndrome. Clin Infect Dis 2004;38:1420-7.
55. Chiou HE, Liu CL, Buttrey MJ, Kuo HP, Liu HW, Kuo HT, et al. Adverse effects of ribavirin and outcome in severe acute respiratory syndrome: Experience in two medical centers. Chest 2005;128:263-72.
56. Graham RL, Donaldson EF, Baric RS. A decade after SARS: Strategies for controlling emerging coronaviruses. Nat Rev Microbiol 2013;11:836-48.
57. Chen J. Pathogenicity and transmissibility of 2019-nCoV—A quick overview and comparison with other emerging viruses. Microbes Infect 2020;22:69-71.
58. Meskarpour-Amiri M, Mehdizadeh P, Yaghoubi M, Shokouh SM, Nasiri T, Hassanlouei B, et al. Evaluating the effect of macro-level health policies on novel coronavirus (Covid-19) epidemic control in iran. Acta Med Iran 2021;59:44-9.
59. Russell CD, Millar JE, Baillie JK. Clinical evidence does not support corticosteroid treatment for 2019-nCoV lung injury. Lancet 2020;395:473-5.
60. Zhao JP, Hu Y, Du RH, Chen ZS, Jin Y, Zhou M, et al. [Expert consensus on the use of corticosteroid in patients with 2019-nCoV pneumonia]. Zhonghua Jie He He Hu Xi Za Zhi 2020;43:183-4.
61. Singhal T. A Review of Coronavirus Disease-2019 (COVID-19). Indian J Pediatr 2020;87:281-6.
62. Chen ZM, Fu JF, Shu Q, Chen YH, Hua CZ, Li FB, et al. Diagnosis and treatment recommendations for pediatric respiratory infection caused by the 2019 novel coronavirus. World J Pediatr 2020;16:240-6.
63. Oh N, Hong N, Ryu DH, Bae SG, Kam S, Kim KY. Exploring Nursing Intention, Stress, and Professionalism in Response to Infectious Disease Emergencies: The Experience of Local Public Hospital Nurses During the 2015 MERS Outbreak in South Korea. Asian Nurs Res (Korean Soc Nurs Sci) 2017;11:230-6.
64. Catton H. Global challenges in health and health care for nurses and midwives everywhere. Int Nurs Rev 2020;67:4-6.
65. Wang C, Horby PW, Hayden FG, Gao GF. A novel coronavirus outbreak of global health concern. Lancet 2020;395:470-3.
66. Duncan D, Lyall G. Understanding the coronavirus. Br J Midwifery 2020;28:146-8.
67. Chang D, Xu H, Rebaza A, Sharma L, Dela Cruz CS. Protecting health-care workers from subclinical coronavirus infection. Lancet Respir Med 2020;8:e13.
68. Kang HS, Son YD, Chae SM, Corte C. Working experiences of nurses during the Middle East respiratory syndrome outbreak. Int J Nurs Pract 2018;24:e12664.
69. MacIntyre CR, Chughtai AA, Seale H, Richards GA, Davidson PM. Respiratory protection for healthcare workers treating Ebola virus disease (EVD): are facemasks sufficient to meet occupational health and safety obligations? Int J Nurs Stud 2014;51:1421-6.
70. MacIntyre CR, Chughtai AA, Seale H, Richards GA, Davidson PM. Uncertainty, risk analysis and change for Ebola personal protective equipment guidelines. Int J Nurs Stud 2015;52:899-903.
71. Kim JS, Choi JS. Middle East respiratory syndrome-related knowledge, preventive behaviours and risk perception among nursing students during outbreak. J Clin Nurs 2016 Sep;25:2542-9.
72. Smith GD, Ng F, Ho Cheung Li W. COVID-19: Emerging compassion, courage and resilience in the face of misinformation and adversity. J Clin Nurs 2020;29:1425-8.
73. Kim JY, Song JY, Yoon YK, Choi SH, Song YG, Kim SR, et al. Middle east respiratory syndrome infection control and prevention guideline for healthcare facilities. Infect Chemother 2015;47:278-302.
2. Prajapat M, Sarma P, Shekhar N, Avti P, Sinha S, Kaur H, et al. Drug targets for corona virus: A systematic review. Indian J Pharmacol 2020;52:56-65.
3. Su S, Wong G, Shi W, Liu J, Lai ACK, Zhou J, et al. Epidemiology, Genetic Recombination, and Pathogenesis of Coronaviruses. Trends Microbiol 2016;24:490-502.
4. Zhu N, Zhang D, Wang W, Li X, Yang B, Song J, et al. A novel coronavirus from patients with pneumonia in China, 2019. N Engl J Med 2020;382:727-33.
5. Sheahan TP, Sims AC, Leist SR, Schäfer A, Won J, Brown AJ, et al. Comparative therapeutic efficacy of remdesivir and combination lopinavir, ritonavir, and interferon beta against MERS-CoV. Nat Commun 2020;11:222.
6. Lau SK, Chan JF. Coronaviruses: Emerging and re-emerging pathogens in humans and animals. Virol J 2015;12;209.
7. Yang Y, Peng F, Wang R, Guan K, Jiang T, Xu G, et al. The deadly coronaviruses: The 2003 SARS pandemic and the 2020 novel coronavirus epidemic in China. J Autoimmun 2020; 109:102434.
8. Farooq HZ, Davies E, Ahmad S, Machin N, Hesketh L, Guiver M, et al. Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus (MERS-CoV) — Surveillance and testing in North England from 2012 to 2019. Int J Infect Dis 2020;93:237-44.
9. Menachery VD, Yount BL, Debbink K, Agnihothram S, Gralinski LE, Plante JA, et al. Erratum: A SARS-like cluster of circulating bat coronaviruses shows potential for human emergence. Nat Med 2015:21,12, 1508-13.
10. Zaki AM, Van Boheemen S, Bestebroer TM, Osterhaus ADME, Fouchier RAM. Isolation of a novel coronavirus from a man with pneumonia in Saudi Arabia. N Engl J Med 2012;367:1814-20.
11. Chughtai AA, Seale H, Islam MS, Owais M, Macintyre CR. Policies on the use of respiratory protection for hospital health workers to protect from coronavirus disease (COVID-19). Int J Nurs Stud 2020;105:103567.
12. Koo JR, Cook AR, Park M, Sun Y, Sun H, Lim JT, et al. Interventions to mitigate early spread of SARS-CoV-2 in Singapore: a modelling study. Lancet Infect Dis 2020;20:678-88.
13. Chan JF, Yuan S, Kok KH, To KK, Chu H, Yang J, et al. A familial cluster of pneumonia associated with the 2019 novel coronavirus indicating person-to-person transmission: a study of a family cluster. Lancet 2020;395:514-23.
14. Swiss Academy Of Medical S. COVID-19 pandemic: triage for intensive-care treatment under resource scarcity. (revised version 3.1, 17 December 2020). Swiss medical weekly. Swiss Med Wkly 2021;151:w20458.
15. Lai CC, Shih TP, Ko WC, Tang HJ, Hsueh PR. Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) and coronavirus disease-2019 (COVID-19): The epidemic and the challenges. Int J Antimicrob Agents 2020;55:105924.
16. Lu R, Zhao X, Li J, Niu P, Yang B, Wu H, et al. Genomic characterisation and epidemiology of 2019 novel coronavirus: implications for virus origins and receptor binding. Lancet 2020;395:565-74.
17. Dyall J, Gross R, Kindrachuk J, Johnson RF, Olinger GG, Hensley LE, et al. Middle East Respiratory Syndrome and Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome: Current Therapeutic Options and Potential Targets for Novel Therapies. Drugs. 2017;77:1935-66.
18. Li W, Shi Z, Yu M, Ren W, Smith C, Epstein JH, et al. Bats are natural reservoirs of SARS-like coronaviruses. Science 2005;310:676-9.
19. Lau SK, Woo PC, Li KS, Huang Y, Tsoi HW, Wong BH, et al. Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-like virus in Chinese horseshoe bats. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2005;102:14040-5.
20. Hu B, Ge X, Wang LF, Shi Z. Bat origin of human coronaviruses Coronaviruses: Emerging and re-emerging pathogens in humans and animals Susanna Lau Positive-strand RNA viruses. Virol J 2015;12:221.
21. Adney DR, van Doremalen N, Brown VR, Bushmaker T, Scott D, de Wit E, et al. Replication and shedding of MERS-CoV in upper respiratory tract of inoculated dromedary camels. Emerg Infect Dis 2014;20:1999-2005.
22. Giovanetti M, Angeletti S, Benvenuto D, Ciccozzi M. A doubt of multiple introduction of SARS-CoV-2 in Italy: A preliminary overview. J Med Virol 2020;92:1634-6.
23. Wu F, Zhao S, Yu B, Chen YM, Wang W, Song ZG, et al. A new coronavirus associated with human respiratory disease in China. Nature 2020;579:265-9.
24. Zhang SF, Tuo JL, Huang XB, Zhu X, Zhang DM, Zhou K, et al. Epidemiology characteristics of human coronaviruses in patients with respiratory infection symptoms and phylogenetic analysis of HCoV-OC43 during 2010-2015 in Guangzhou. PLoS One 2018;13:e0191789.
25. Andersen KG, Rambaut A, Lipkin WI, Holmes EC, Garry RF. The proximal origin of SARS-CoV-2. Nat Med 2020;26:450-2.
26. Qiu W, Chu C, Mao A, Wu J. The impacts on health, society, and economy of SARS and H7N9 Outbreaks in China: A Case Comparison Study. J Environ Public Health 2018;2018:2710185.
27. Revised US. Surveillance case definition for Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome (SARS) and update on SARS cases - United States and worldwide, december 2003. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 2003;52:1202-6.
28. Organization WH. Summary table of SARS cases by country November 1, 2002- August 7, 2003. (Accessed at http://www.who.int/csr/sars/country/2003_08_15/en/.)
29. Song HD, Tu CC, Zhang GW, Wang SY, Zheng K, Lei LC, et al. Cross-host evolution of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus in palm civet and human. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2005;102:2430-5.
30. Guan Y, Zheng BJ, He YQ, Liu XL, Zhuang ZX, Cheung CL, et al. Isolation and characterization of viruses related to the SARS coronavirus from animals in Southern China. Science 2003;302:276-8.
31. O'Keefe LC. Middle east respiratory syndrome coronavirus. Workplace Health Saf 2016;64:184-6.
32. Organization WH. Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus (MERS-CoV) Jan 30, 2020 (Accessed at http://www.who.int/emergencies/mers-cov/en/.)
33. Adhikari SP, Meng S, Wu YJ, Mao YP, Ye RX, Wang QZ, et al. Epidemiology, causes, clinical manifestation and diagnosis, prevention and control of coronavirus disease (COVID-19) during the early outbreak period: A scoping review. Infect Dis Poverty 2020;9:29.
34. Chang D, Lin M, Wei L, Xie L, Zhu G, Dela Cruz CS, et al. Epidemiologic and Clinical Characteristics of Novel Coronavirus Infections Involving 13 Patients Outside Wuhan, China. JAMA 2020;323:1092-3.
35. Qiu H, Wu J, Hong L, Luo Y, Song Q, Chen D. Clinical and epidemiological features of 36 children with coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) in Zhejiang, China: an observational cohort study. Lancet Infect Dis 2020;20:689-96.
36. Li Q, Guan X, Wu P, Wang X, Zhou L, Tong Y, et al. Early transmission dynamics in Wuhan, China, of novel coronavirus-infected pneumonia. N Engl J Med 2020;382:1199-207.
37. Huang C, Wang Y, Li X, Ren L, Zhao J, Hu Y, et al. Clinical features of patients infected with 2019 novel coronavirus in Wuhan, China. Lancet 2020;395:497-506.
38. Lescure FX, Bouadma L, Nguyen D, Parisey M, Wicky PH, Behillil S, et al. Clinical and virological data of the first cases of COVID-19 in Europe: a case series. Lancet Infect Dis 2020;20:697-706.
39. Hui DS. An overview on severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS). Monaldi Arch Chest Dis 2005;63:149-57.
40. Fehr AR, Perlman S. Coronaviruses: An overview of their replication and pathogenesis. Methods Mol Biol 2015;1282:1-23.
41. Assiri A, Al-Tawfiq JA, Al-Rabeeah AA, Al-Rabiah FA, Al-Hajjar S, Al-Barrak A, et al. Epidemiological, demographic, and clinical characteristics of 47 cases of Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus disease from Saudi Arabia: A descriptive study. Lancet Infect Dis 2013;13:752-61.
42. Chowell G, Abdirizak F, Lee S, Lee J, Jung E, Nishiura H, et al. Transmission characteristics of MERS and SARS in the healthcare setting: A comparative study. BMC Med 2015;13:210.
43. Organization WH. Situation reports 22 Feb 2020 (Accessed at https://www.who.int/emergencies/diseases/novel-coronavirus-2019/situation-reports/.)
44. Wu YC, Chen CS, Chan YJ. Overview of the 2019 Novel Coronavirus (2019-nCoV): The Pathogen of Severe Specific Contagious Pneumonia (SSCP). J Chin Med Assoc 2020;83:1.
45. Zumla A, Hui DS, Perlman S. Middle East respiratory syndrome. Lancet 2015;386:995-1007.
46. Rasmussen SA, Watson AK, Swerdlow DL. Middle east respiratory syndrome (MERS). Microbiol Spectr 2016;4.
47. Al-Osail AM, Al-Wazzah MJ. The history and epidemiology of Middle East respiratory syndrome corona virus. Multidiscip Respir Med 2017;12:20.
48. Chan PK, Tang JW, Hui DS. SARS: Clinical presentation, transmission, pathogenesis and treatment options. Clin Sci (Lond) 2006;110:193-204.
49. Arabi YM, Arifi AA, Balkhy HH, Najm H, Aldawood AS, Ghabashi A, et al. Clinical course and outcomes of critically ill patients with middle east respiratory syndrome coronavirus infection. Ann Intern Med 2014;160:389-97.
50. Ajlan AM, Ahyad RA, Jamjoom LG, Alharthy A, Madani TA. Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus (MERS-CoV) infection: Chest CT findings. AJR Am J Roentgenol 2014;203:782-7.
51. Chen N, Zhou M, Dong X, Qu J, Gong F, Han Y, et al. Epidemiological and clinical characteristics of 99 cases of 2019 novel coronavirus pneumonia in Wuhan, China: a descriptive study. Lancet 2020;395:507-13.
52. Zhou P, Yang XL, Wang XG, Hu B, Zhang L, Zhang W, et al. A pneumonia outbreak associated with a new coronavirus of probable bat origin. Nature 2020;579:270-3.
53. Zou L, Ruan F, Huang M, Liang L, Huang H, Hong Z, et al. SARS-CoV-2 viral load in upper respiratory specimens of infected patients. N Engl J Med 2020;382:1177-9.
54. Christian MD, Poutanen SM, Loutfy MR, Muller MP, Low DE. Severe acute respiratory syndrome. Clin Infect Dis 2004;38:1420-7.
55. Chiou HE, Liu CL, Buttrey MJ, Kuo HP, Liu HW, Kuo HT, et al. Adverse effects of ribavirin and outcome in severe acute respiratory syndrome: Experience in two medical centers. Chest 2005;128:263-72.
56. Graham RL, Donaldson EF, Baric RS. A decade after SARS: Strategies for controlling emerging coronaviruses. Nat Rev Microbiol 2013;11:836-48.
57. Chen J. Pathogenicity and transmissibility of 2019-nCoV—A quick overview and comparison with other emerging viruses. Microbes Infect 2020;22:69-71.
58. Meskarpour-Amiri M, Mehdizadeh P, Yaghoubi M, Shokouh SM, Nasiri T, Hassanlouei B, et al. Evaluating the effect of macro-level health policies on novel coronavirus (Covid-19) epidemic control in iran. Acta Med Iran 2021;59:44-9.
59. Russell CD, Millar JE, Baillie JK. Clinical evidence does not support corticosteroid treatment for 2019-nCoV lung injury. Lancet 2020;395:473-5.
60. Zhao JP, Hu Y, Du RH, Chen ZS, Jin Y, Zhou M, et al. [Expert consensus on the use of corticosteroid in patients with 2019-nCoV pneumonia]. Zhonghua Jie He He Hu Xi Za Zhi 2020;43:183-4.
61. Singhal T. A Review of Coronavirus Disease-2019 (COVID-19). Indian J Pediatr 2020;87:281-6.
62. Chen ZM, Fu JF, Shu Q, Chen YH, Hua CZ, Li FB, et al. Diagnosis and treatment recommendations for pediatric respiratory infection caused by the 2019 novel coronavirus. World J Pediatr 2020;16:240-6.
63. Oh N, Hong N, Ryu DH, Bae SG, Kam S, Kim KY. Exploring Nursing Intention, Stress, and Professionalism in Response to Infectious Disease Emergencies: The Experience of Local Public Hospital Nurses During the 2015 MERS Outbreak in South Korea. Asian Nurs Res (Korean Soc Nurs Sci) 2017;11:230-6.
64. Catton H. Global challenges in health and health care for nurses and midwives everywhere. Int Nurs Rev 2020;67:4-6.
65. Wang C, Horby PW, Hayden FG, Gao GF. A novel coronavirus outbreak of global health concern. Lancet 2020;395:470-3.
66. Duncan D, Lyall G. Understanding the coronavirus. Br J Midwifery 2020;28:146-8.
67. Chang D, Xu H, Rebaza A, Sharma L, Dela Cruz CS. Protecting health-care workers from subclinical coronavirus infection. Lancet Respir Med 2020;8:e13.
68. Kang HS, Son YD, Chae SM, Corte C. Working experiences of nurses during the Middle East respiratory syndrome outbreak. Int J Nurs Pract 2018;24:e12664.
69. MacIntyre CR, Chughtai AA, Seale H, Richards GA, Davidson PM. Respiratory protection for healthcare workers treating Ebola virus disease (EVD): are facemasks sufficient to meet occupational health and safety obligations? Int J Nurs Stud 2014;51:1421-6.
70. MacIntyre CR, Chughtai AA, Seale H, Richards GA, Davidson PM. Uncertainty, risk analysis and change for Ebola personal protective equipment guidelines. Int J Nurs Stud 2015;52:899-903.
71. Kim JS, Choi JS. Middle East respiratory syndrome-related knowledge, preventive behaviours and risk perception among nursing students during outbreak. J Clin Nurs 2016 Sep;25:2542-9.
72. Smith GD, Ng F, Ho Cheung Li W. COVID-19: Emerging compassion, courage and resilience in the face of misinformation and adversity. J Clin Nurs 2020;29:1425-8.
73. Kim JY, Song JY, Yoon YK, Choi SH, Song YG, Kim SR, et al. Middle east respiratory syndrome infection control and prevention guideline for healthcare facilities. Infect Chemother 2015;47:278-302.
| Files | ||
| Issue | Vol 60 No 12 (2022) | |
| Section | Review Article(s) | |
| DOI | https://doi.org/10.18502/acta.v60i12.11824 | |
| Keywords | ||
| Coronavirus Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) Severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) Middle east respiratory syndrome (MERS) Human | ||
| Rights and permissions | |
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This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License. |
How to Cite
1.
Ranjbar Kouchaksaraei S, Vizeshfar F, Rohaninasab M, Nikjo P. Coronaviruses Pathogens in Human in Third Millennium (SARS-CoV, MERS, COVID-19): A Review Article. Acta Med Iran. 2023;60(12):723-730.
