COVID-19 and Diabetes
-
Vahid Asgharzadeh
,
Mir Reza Valiollahzadeh
,
Zahra Taghinejad
,
Mohammad Asgharzadeh
,
Jalil Rashedi
,
Behroz Mahdavi poor
,
Hossein Jalaei Nobari
,
Ahmad Ali Khalili
,
Yousof Khairy
,
Amir Ali Mir Mazhari
Abstract
Following the discovery of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) in China, it has been transmitted to travelers through respiratory droplets and distributed worldwide. Viral, environmental, and host factors all play a role in getting infected with the virus and having severe forms of the disease named coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). Diabetes is one of the most important host risk factors in the progression and severity of COVID-19. In diabetes, hyperglycemia and protein glycosylation increase pro-inflammatory cytokines levels and suppress innate and adaptive immune system by impairing the function of neutrophils, macrophages, and lymphocytes, especially regulatory T lymphocytes. The compromised immune system in diabetic patients makes them vulnerable to infectious diseases like COVID-19. Correspondingly, people with diabetes are usually treated with angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitors and angiotensin II Type-I receptor blockers (ARBs), which increase ACE2 expression as a receptor for SARS-CoV-2. Thus, diabetic patients are more likely to develop severe forms of COVID-19 and die due to chronic inflammation and impaired immune function.
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7. Goodarzi A. A comprehensive review on COVID-19 infection and comorbidities of various organs. Acta Med Iran 2021;59:4-14.
8. Joshi N, Caputo GM, Weitekamp MR, Karchmer A. Infections in patients with diabetes mellitus. N Engl J Med 1999;341:1906-12.
9. Frydrych LM, Bian G, O'Lone DE, Ward PA, Delano MJ. Obesity and type 2 diabetes mellitus drive immune dysfunction, infection development, and sepsis mortality. J Leukoc Biol 2018;104:525-34.
10. Shang J, Wang Q, Zhang H, Wang X, Wan J, Yan Y, et al. The relationship between diabetes mellitus and COVID-19 prognosis: a retrospective cohort study in Wuhan, China. Am J Med 2021;134:e6-14.
11. Velavan TP, Meyer CG. The COVID‐19 epidemic. Trop Med Int Health 2020;25:278-80.
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13. Chu DK, Pan Y, Cheng SM, Hui KP, Krishnan P, Liu Y, et al. Molecular diagnosis of a novel coronavirus (2019-nCoV) causing an outbreak of pneumonia. Clin Chem 2020;66:549-55.
14. Durai P, Batool M, Shah M, Choi S. Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus: transmission, virology and therapeutic targeting to aid in outbreak control. Exp Mol Med 2015;47:e181.
15. Chan JF, Kok KH, Zhu Z, Chu H, To KK, Yuan S, et al. Genomic characterization of the 2019 novel human-pathogenic coronavirus isolated from a patient with atypical pneumonia after visiting Wuhan. Emerg Microbes Infect 2020;9:221-36.
16. Hoffmann M, Kleine-Weber H, Schroeder S, Krüger N, Herrler T, Erichsen S, et al. SARS-CoV-2 cell entry depends on ACE2 and TMPRSS2 and is blocked by a clinically proven protease inhibitor. Cell 2020;181:271-80.e8.
17. Cui J, Li F, Shi ZL. Origin and evolution of pathogenic coronaviruses. Nat Rev Microbiol 2019;17:181-92.
18. Zhang H, Penninger JM, Li Y, Zhong N, Slutsky AS. Angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2) as a SARS-CoV-2 receptor: molecular mechanisms and potential therapeutic target. Intensive Care Med 2020;46:586-90.
19. Zhao Y, Zhao Z, Wang Y, Zhou Y, Ma Y, Zuo W. Single-cell RNA expression profiling of ACE2, the receptor of SARS-CoV-2. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2020;202:756-9.
20. Fang L, Karakiulakis G, Roth M. Are patients with hypertension and diabetes mellitus at increased risk for COVID-19 infection? Lancet Respir Med 2020;8:e21.
21. Anari AG, Gholami S, Sheyda E, Kharazmi S, Namiranian N. Does Diabetic Microvascular Complications Affect Gastrointestinal Symptoms? Acta Med Iran 2019;57:156-9.
22. Knapp S. Diabetes and infection: is there a link?-A mini-review. Gerontology 2013;59:99-104.
23. Hodgson K, Morris J, Bridson T, Govan B, Rush C, Ketheesan N. Immunological mechanisms contributing to the double burden of diabetes and intracellular bacterial infections. Immunology 2015;144:171-85.
24. Singh AK, Gupta R, Ghosh A, Misra A. Diabetes in COVID-19: Prevalence, pathophysiology, prognosis and practical considerations. Diabetes Metab Syndr 2020;14:303-10.
25. Wu H, Lau ES, Ma RC, Kong AP, Wild SH, Goggins W, et al. Secular trends in all-cause and cause-specific mortality rates in people with diabetes in Hong Kong, 2001–2016: a retrospective cohort study. Diabetologia 2020;63:757-66.
26. Yang J, Feng Y, Yuan M, Yuan S, Fu H, Wu B, et al. Plasma glucose levels and diabetes are independent predictors for mortality and morbidity in patients with SARS. Diabet Med 2006;23:623-8.
27. Schoen K, Horvat N, Guerreiro NF, de Castro I, de Giassi KS. Spectrum of clinical and radiographic findings in patients with diagnosis of H1N1 and correlation with clinical severity. BMC Infect Dis 2019;19:964.
28. Remuzzi A, Remuzzi G. COVID-19 and Italy: what next? Lancet 2020;395:1225-8.
29. Turk Z. Glycation and complications of diabetes. Diabetol Croat 2001;30:49-54.
30. Victoria Abregu A, del Rosario Carrizo T, Irma Diaz E, Susana Velarde M, Cristina Fonio M, Cristina Bazan M. Subclinical inflammation in children and adolescents with type 1 diabetes. Acta Bioquim Clin Latinoam 2015;49:393-8.
31. Mohanty P, Hamouda W, Garg R, Aljada A, Ghanim H, Dandona P. Glucose challenge stimulates reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation by leucocytes. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2000;85:2970-3.
32. Kumawat M, Sharma TK, Singh I, Singh N, Ghalaut VS, Vardey SK, et al. Antioxidant enzymes and lipid peroxidation in type 2 diabetes mellitus patients with and without nephropathy. N Am J Med Sci 2013;5:213-9.
33. Ditzel J, Standl E. The problem of tissue oxygenation in diabetes mellitus: its relation to the early functional changes in the microcirculation of diabetic subjects. Acta Med Scand Suppl 1975;197:49-58.
34. Fernández-Real JM, Valdés S, Manco M, Chico B, Botas P, Campo A, et al. Surfactant protein d, a marker of lung innate immunity, is positively associated with insulin sensitivity. Diabetes care 2010;33:847-53.
35. Baker EH, Baines DL. Airway glucose homeostasis: a new target in the prevention and treatment of pulmonary infection. Chest 2018;153:507-14.
36. Nakhjavani M, Nargesi AA, Salabati M, Mahmoudzadeh R, Morteza A, Heidari B, Esteghamati A. Changes in leukocyte subpopulations with decline in glomerular filtration rate in patients with type 2 diabetes. Acta Med Iran 2015;53:425-31.
37. Muniyappa R, Gubbi S. COVID-19 pandemic, coronaviruses, and diabetes mellitus. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab 2020;318:E736-41.
38. Akirav EM, Henegariu O, Preston-Hurlburt P, Schmidt AM, Clynes R, Herold KC. The receptor for advanced glycation end products (RAGE) affects T cell differentiation in OVA induced asthma. PloS One 2014;9:e95678.
39. Hu R, Xia CQ, Butfiloski E, Clare-Salzler M. Effect of high glucose on cytokine production by human peripheral blood immune cells and type I interferon signaling in monocytes: Implications for the role of hyperglycemia in the diabetes inflammatory process and host defense against infection. Clin Immunol 2018;195:139-48.
40. Wang X, Ota N, Manzanillo P, Kates L, Zavala-Solorio J, Eidenschenk C, et al. Interleukin-22 alleviates metabolic disorders and restores mucosal immunity in diabetes. Nature 2014;514:237-41.
41. Ivashkiv LB. IFNγ: signalling, epigenetics and roles in immunity, metabolism, disease and cancer immunotherapy. Nat Rev Immunol 2018;18:545-58.
42. Muskardin TLW, Niewold TB. Type I interferon in rheumatic diseases. Nat Rev Rheumatol 2018;14:214-28.
43. Hernandez P, Gronke K, Diefenbach A. A catch‐22: Interleukin‐22 and cancer. Eur J Immunol 2018;48:15-31.
44. Zhou T, Hu Z, Yang S, Sun L, Yu Z, Wang G. Role of adaptive and innate immunity in type 2 diabetes mellitus. J Diabetes Res 2018;2018:7457269.
45. Vozarova B, Weyer C, Lindsay RS, Pratley RE, Bogardus C, Tataranni PA. High white blood cell count is associated with a worsening of insulin sensitivity and predicts the development of type 2 diabetes. Diabetes 2002;51:455-61.
46. Dosch M, Gerber J, Jebbawi F, Beldi G. Mechanisms of ATP release by inflammatory cells. Int J Mol Sci 2018;19:1222.
47. Montoya-Rosales A, Castro-Garcia P, Torres-Juarez F, Enciso-Moreno JA, Rivas-Santiago B. Glucose levels affect LL-37 expression in monocyte-derived macrophages altering the Mycobacterium tuberculosis intracellular growth control. Microb Pathog 2016;97:148-53.
48. Critchley JA, Carey IM, Harris T, DeWilde S, Hosking FJ, Cook DG. Glycemic control and risk of infections among people with type 1 or type 2 diabetes in a large primary care cohort study. Diabetes care 2018;41:2127-35.
49. Nyambuya TM, Dludla PV, Mxinwa V, Nkambule BB. T-cell activation and cardiovascular risk in adults with type 2 diabetes mellitus: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Clin Immunol 2020;210:108313.
50. Maddaloni E, Buzzetti R. Covid‐19 and diabetes mellitus: unveiling the interaction of two pandemics. Diabetes Metab Res Rev 2020;36:e33213321.
51. Huang I, Lim MA, Pranata R. Diabetes mellitus is associated with increased mortality and severity of disease in COVID-19 pneumonia–a systematic review, meta-analysis, and meta-regression. Diabetes Metab Syndr 2020;14:395-403.
52. Guo W, Li M, Dong Y, Zhou H, Zhang Z, Tian C, et al. Diabetes is a risk factor for the progression and prognosis of COVID‐19. Diabetes Metab Res Rev 2020;36:e3319.
53. Tang N, Li D, Wang X, Sun Z. Abnormal coagulation parameters are associated with poor prognosis in patients with novel coronavirus pneumonia. J Thromb Haemost 2020;18:844-7.
54. Libby P, Simon DI. Inflammation and thrombosis: the clot thickens. Circulation 2001;103:1718-20.
55. Lim S, Bae JH, Kwon HS, Nauck MA. COVID-19 and diabetes mellitus: from pathophysiology to clinical management. Nat Rev Endocrinol 2021;17:11-30.
56. Randeria SN, Thomson GJ, Nell TA, Roberts T, Pretorius E. Inflammatory cytokines in type 2 diabetes mellitus as facilitators of hypercoagulation and abnormal clot formation. Cardiovasc Diabetol 2019;18:72.
57. Kozakova M, Morizzo C, Goncalves I, Natali A, Nilsson J, Palombo C. Cardiovascular organ damage in type 2 diabetes mellitus: the role of lipids and inflammation. Cardiovasc Diabetol 2019;18:61.
58. Bosso M, Thanaraj TA, Abu-Farha M, Alanbaei M, Abubaker J, Al-Mulla F. The two faces of ACE2: the role of ACE2 receptor and its polymorphisms in hypertension and COVID-19. Mol Ther Methods Clin Dev 2020;18:321-7.
59. Tikellis C, Bernardi S, Burns WC. Angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 is a key modulator of the renin–angiotensin system in cardiovascular and renal disease. Curr Opin Nephrol Hypertens 2011;20:62-8.
60. Sparks MA, Crowley SD, Gurley SB, Mirotsou M, Coffman TM. Classical renin-angiotensin system in kidney physiology. Compr Physiol 2014;4:1201-28.
61. Gupta R, Hussain A, Misra A. Diabetes and COVID-19: evidence, current status and unanswered research questions. Eur J Clin Nutr 2020;74:864-70.
62. Cure E, Cumhur Cure M. Comment on "Organ-protective effect of angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 and its effect on the prognosis of COVID-19". J Med Virol 2020;92:1423-4.
63. Kiely DG, Cargill RI, Wheeldon NM, Coutie WJ, Lipworth BJ. Haemodynamic and endocrine effects of type 1 angiotensin II receptor blockade in patients with hypoxaemic cor pulmonale. Cardiovasc Res. 1997;33:201-8.
64. Kuba K, Imai Y, Rao S, Gao H, Guo F, Guan B, et al. A crucial role of angiotensin converting enzyme 2 (ACE2) in SARS coronavirus-induced lung injury. Nat Med 2005;11:875-9.
2. Li Q, Guan X, Wu P, Wang X, Zhou L, Tong Y, et al. Early transmission dynamics in Wuhan, China, of novel coronavirus–infected pneumonia. N Engl J Med 2020;382:1199-207.
3. Apicella M, Campopiano MC, Mantuano M, Mazoni L, Coppelli A, Del Prato S. COVID-19 in people with diabetes: understanding the reasons for worse outcomes. Lancet Diabetes Endocrinol 2020;8:782-92.
4. Riou J, Althaus CL. Pattern of early human-to-human transmission of Wuhan 2019 novel coronavirus (2019-nCoV), December 2019 to January 2020. Euro Surveill 2020;25:2000058.
5. Osmani F. Statistical ambiguities in epidemics of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). Acta Med Iran 2020;58:142-3.
6. Rashedi J, Mahdavi Poor B, Asgharzadeh V, Pourostadi M, Samadi Kafil H, Vegari A, et al. Risk factors for COVID-19. Infez Med 2020;28:469-74.
7. Goodarzi A. A comprehensive review on COVID-19 infection and comorbidities of various organs. Acta Med Iran 2021;59:4-14.
8. Joshi N, Caputo GM, Weitekamp MR, Karchmer A. Infections in patients with diabetes mellitus. N Engl J Med 1999;341:1906-12.
9. Frydrych LM, Bian G, O'Lone DE, Ward PA, Delano MJ. Obesity and type 2 diabetes mellitus drive immune dysfunction, infection development, and sepsis mortality. J Leukoc Biol 2018;104:525-34.
10. Shang J, Wang Q, Zhang H, Wang X, Wan J, Yan Y, et al. The relationship between diabetes mellitus and COVID-19 prognosis: a retrospective cohort study in Wuhan, China. Am J Med 2021;134:e6-14.
11. Velavan TP, Meyer CG. The COVID‐19 epidemic. Trop Med Int Health 2020;25:278-80.
12. Chen N, Zhou M, Dong X, Qu J, Gong F, Han Y, et al. Epidemiological and clinical characteristics of 99 cases of 2019 novel coronavirus pneumonia in Wuhan, China: a descriptive study. Lancet 2020;395:507-13.
13. Chu DK, Pan Y, Cheng SM, Hui KP, Krishnan P, Liu Y, et al. Molecular diagnosis of a novel coronavirus (2019-nCoV) causing an outbreak of pneumonia. Clin Chem 2020;66:549-55.
14. Durai P, Batool M, Shah M, Choi S. Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus: transmission, virology and therapeutic targeting to aid in outbreak control. Exp Mol Med 2015;47:e181.
15. Chan JF, Kok KH, Zhu Z, Chu H, To KK, Yuan S, et al. Genomic characterization of the 2019 novel human-pathogenic coronavirus isolated from a patient with atypical pneumonia after visiting Wuhan. Emerg Microbes Infect 2020;9:221-36.
16. Hoffmann M, Kleine-Weber H, Schroeder S, Krüger N, Herrler T, Erichsen S, et al. SARS-CoV-2 cell entry depends on ACE2 and TMPRSS2 and is blocked by a clinically proven protease inhibitor. Cell 2020;181:271-80.e8.
17. Cui J, Li F, Shi ZL. Origin and evolution of pathogenic coronaviruses. Nat Rev Microbiol 2019;17:181-92.
18. Zhang H, Penninger JM, Li Y, Zhong N, Slutsky AS. Angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2) as a SARS-CoV-2 receptor: molecular mechanisms and potential therapeutic target. Intensive Care Med 2020;46:586-90.
19. Zhao Y, Zhao Z, Wang Y, Zhou Y, Ma Y, Zuo W. Single-cell RNA expression profiling of ACE2, the receptor of SARS-CoV-2. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2020;202:756-9.
20. Fang L, Karakiulakis G, Roth M. Are patients with hypertension and diabetes mellitus at increased risk for COVID-19 infection? Lancet Respir Med 2020;8:e21.
21. Anari AG, Gholami S, Sheyda E, Kharazmi S, Namiranian N. Does Diabetic Microvascular Complications Affect Gastrointestinal Symptoms? Acta Med Iran 2019;57:156-9.
22. Knapp S. Diabetes and infection: is there a link?-A mini-review. Gerontology 2013;59:99-104.
23. Hodgson K, Morris J, Bridson T, Govan B, Rush C, Ketheesan N. Immunological mechanisms contributing to the double burden of diabetes and intracellular bacterial infections. Immunology 2015;144:171-85.
24. Singh AK, Gupta R, Ghosh A, Misra A. Diabetes in COVID-19: Prevalence, pathophysiology, prognosis and practical considerations. Diabetes Metab Syndr 2020;14:303-10.
25. Wu H, Lau ES, Ma RC, Kong AP, Wild SH, Goggins W, et al. Secular trends in all-cause and cause-specific mortality rates in people with diabetes in Hong Kong, 2001–2016: a retrospective cohort study. Diabetologia 2020;63:757-66.
26. Yang J, Feng Y, Yuan M, Yuan S, Fu H, Wu B, et al. Plasma glucose levels and diabetes are independent predictors for mortality and morbidity in patients with SARS. Diabet Med 2006;23:623-8.
27. Schoen K, Horvat N, Guerreiro NF, de Castro I, de Giassi KS. Spectrum of clinical and radiographic findings in patients with diagnosis of H1N1 and correlation with clinical severity. BMC Infect Dis 2019;19:964.
28. Remuzzi A, Remuzzi G. COVID-19 and Italy: what next? Lancet 2020;395:1225-8.
29. Turk Z. Glycation and complications of diabetes. Diabetol Croat 2001;30:49-54.
30. Victoria Abregu A, del Rosario Carrizo T, Irma Diaz E, Susana Velarde M, Cristina Fonio M, Cristina Bazan M. Subclinical inflammation in children and adolescents with type 1 diabetes. Acta Bioquim Clin Latinoam 2015;49:393-8.
31. Mohanty P, Hamouda W, Garg R, Aljada A, Ghanim H, Dandona P. Glucose challenge stimulates reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation by leucocytes. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2000;85:2970-3.
32. Kumawat M, Sharma TK, Singh I, Singh N, Ghalaut VS, Vardey SK, et al. Antioxidant enzymes and lipid peroxidation in type 2 diabetes mellitus patients with and without nephropathy. N Am J Med Sci 2013;5:213-9.
33. Ditzel J, Standl E. The problem of tissue oxygenation in diabetes mellitus: its relation to the early functional changes in the microcirculation of diabetic subjects. Acta Med Scand Suppl 1975;197:49-58.
34. Fernández-Real JM, Valdés S, Manco M, Chico B, Botas P, Campo A, et al. Surfactant protein d, a marker of lung innate immunity, is positively associated with insulin sensitivity. Diabetes care 2010;33:847-53.
35. Baker EH, Baines DL. Airway glucose homeostasis: a new target in the prevention and treatment of pulmonary infection. Chest 2018;153:507-14.
36. Nakhjavani M, Nargesi AA, Salabati M, Mahmoudzadeh R, Morteza A, Heidari B, Esteghamati A. Changes in leukocyte subpopulations with decline in glomerular filtration rate in patients with type 2 diabetes. Acta Med Iran 2015;53:425-31.
37. Muniyappa R, Gubbi S. COVID-19 pandemic, coronaviruses, and diabetes mellitus. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab 2020;318:E736-41.
38. Akirav EM, Henegariu O, Preston-Hurlburt P, Schmidt AM, Clynes R, Herold KC. The receptor for advanced glycation end products (RAGE) affects T cell differentiation in OVA induced asthma. PloS One 2014;9:e95678.
39. Hu R, Xia CQ, Butfiloski E, Clare-Salzler M. Effect of high glucose on cytokine production by human peripheral blood immune cells and type I interferon signaling in monocytes: Implications for the role of hyperglycemia in the diabetes inflammatory process and host defense against infection. Clin Immunol 2018;195:139-48.
40. Wang X, Ota N, Manzanillo P, Kates L, Zavala-Solorio J, Eidenschenk C, et al. Interleukin-22 alleviates metabolic disorders and restores mucosal immunity in diabetes. Nature 2014;514:237-41.
41. Ivashkiv LB. IFNγ: signalling, epigenetics and roles in immunity, metabolism, disease and cancer immunotherapy. Nat Rev Immunol 2018;18:545-58.
42. Muskardin TLW, Niewold TB. Type I interferon in rheumatic diseases. Nat Rev Rheumatol 2018;14:214-28.
43. Hernandez P, Gronke K, Diefenbach A. A catch‐22: Interleukin‐22 and cancer. Eur J Immunol 2018;48:15-31.
44. Zhou T, Hu Z, Yang S, Sun L, Yu Z, Wang G. Role of adaptive and innate immunity in type 2 diabetes mellitus. J Diabetes Res 2018;2018:7457269.
45. Vozarova B, Weyer C, Lindsay RS, Pratley RE, Bogardus C, Tataranni PA. High white blood cell count is associated with a worsening of insulin sensitivity and predicts the development of type 2 diabetes. Diabetes 2002;51:455-61.
46. Dosch M, Gerber J, Jebbawi F, Beldi G. Mechanisms of ATP release by inflammatory cells. Int J Mol Sci 2018;19:1222.
47. Montoya-Rosales A, Castro-Garcia P, Torres-Juarez F, Enciso-Moreno JA, Rivas-Santiago B. Glucose levels affect LL-37 expression in monocyte-derived macrophages altering the Mycobacterium tuberculosis intracellular growth control. Microb Pathog 2016;97:148-53.
48. Critchley JA, Carey IM, Harris T, DeWilde S, Hosking FJ, Cook DG. Glycemic control and risk of infections among people with type 1 or type 2 diabetes in a large primary care cohort study. Diabetes care 2018;41:2127-35.
49. Nyambuya TM, Dludla PV, Mxinwa V, Nkambule BB. T-cell activation and cardiovascular risk in adults with type 2 diabetes mellitus: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Clin Immunol 2020;210:108313.
50. Maddaloni E, Buzzetti R. Covid‐19 and diabetes mellitus: unveiling the interaction of two pandemics. Diabetes Metab Res Rev 2020;36:e33213321.
51. Huang I, Lim MA, Pranata R. Diabetes mellitus is associated with increased mortality and severity of disease in COVID-19 pneumonia–a systematic review, meta-analysis, and meta-regression. Diabetes Metab Syndr 2020;14:395-403.
52. Guo W, Li M, Dong Y, Zhou H, Zhang Z, Tian C, et al. Diabetes is a risk factor for the progression and prognosis of COVID‐19. Diabetes Metab Res Rev 2020;36:e3319.
53. Tang N, Li D, Wang X, Sun Z. Abnormal coagulation parameters are associated with poor prognosis in patients with novel coronavirus pneumonia. J Thromb Haemost 2020;18:844-7.
54. Libby P, Simon DI. Inflammation and thrombosis: the clot thickens. Circulation 2001;103:1718-20.
55. Lim S, Bae JH, Kwon HS, Nauck MA. COVID-19 and diabetes mellitus: from pathophysiology to clinical management. Nat Rev Endocrinol 2021;17:11-30.
56. Randeria SN, Thomson GJ, Nell TA, Roberts T, Pretorius E. Inflammatory cytokines in type 2 diabetes mellitus as facilitators of hypercoagulation and abnormal clot formation. Cardiovasc Diabetol 2019;18:72.
57. Kozakova M, Morizzo C, Goncalves I, Natali A, Nilsson J, Palombo C. Cardiovascular organ damage in type 2 diabetes mellitus: the role of lipids and inflammation. Cardiovasc Diabetol 2019;18:61.
58. Bosso M, Thanaraj TA, Abu-Farha M, Alanbaei M, Abubaker J, Al-Mulla F. The two faces of ACE2: the role of ACE2 receptor and its polymorphisms in hypertension and COVID-19. Mol Ther Methods Clin Dev 2020;18:321-7.
59. Tikellis C, Bernardi S, Burns WC. Angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 is a key modulator of the renin–angiotensin system in cardiovascular and renal disease. Curr Opin Nephrol Hypertens 2011;20:62-8.
60. Sparks MA, Crowley SD, Gurley SB, Mirotsou M, Coffman TM. Classical renin-angiotensin system in kidney physiology. Compr Physiol 2014;4:1201-28.
61. Gupta R, Hussain A, Misra A. Diabetes and COVID-19: evidence, current status and unanswered research questions. Eur J Clin Nutr 2020;74:864-70.
62. Cure E, Cumhur Cure M. Comment on "Organ-protective effect of angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 and its effect on the prognosis of COVID-19". J Med Virol 2020;92:1423-4.
63. Kiely DG, Cargill RI, Wheeldon NM, Coutie WJ, Lipworth BJ. Haemodynamic and endocrine effects of type 1 angiotensin II receptor blockade in patients with hypoxaemic cor pulmonale. Cardiovasc Res. 1997;33:201-8.
64. Kuba K, Imai Y, Rao S, Gao H, Guo F, Guan B, et al. A crucial role of angiotensin converting enzyme 2 (ACE2) in SARS coronavirus-induced lung injury. Nat Med 2005;11:875-9.
| Files | ||
| Issue | Vol 61 No 5 (2023) | |
| Section | Review Article(s) | |
| DOI | https://doi.org/10.18502/acta.v61i5.13479 | |
| Keywords | ||
| SARS-CoV-2 COVID-19 host risk factors diabetes | ||
| Rights and permissions | |
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This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License. |
How to Cite
1.
Asgharzadeh V, Valiollahzadeh MR, Taghinejad Z, Asgharzadeh M, Rashedi J, Mahdavi poor B, Jalaei Nobari H, Ali Khalili A, Khairy Y, Mir Mazhari AA. COVID-19 and Diabetes. Acta Med Iran. 2023;61(5):257-263.
